MANUAL  OF  TOXICOLOGY. 


MANUAL  OF  TOXICOLOGY, 


INCLUDING   THE   CONSIDERATION    OF   THE 


NATURE,  PROPERTIES,  EFFECTS,  AND  MEANS 
OF  DETECTION 


OF 


POISONS, 


MORE  ESPECIALLY  IN  THEIR  MEDICO-LEGAL  RELATIONS. 


BY 

JOHN  J.  REESE,  M.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE   AND  TOXICOLOGY   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY   OP   PENNSYLVANIA 
PHYSICIAN   TO  ST.  JOSEPH'S   HOSPITAL;    MEMBER  OF  THE  COLLEGE   OF   PHYSICIANS  OF   PHILA- 
DELPHIA;    HONORARY   MEMBER   OF  THE    NEW   YORK   MEDICO-LEGAL   SOCIETY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 

1874. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    A    CO., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


TO 

GEORGE   B.  WOOD,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

EMERITTTS  PROFESSOR  OF  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 

PENNSYLVANIA;   PRESIDENT  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS  OF  PHILADELPHIA; 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY,  ETC., 

THIS      WORK 

IS  DEDICATED, 

AS   A   TRIBUTE   OF    ESTEEM   FOB   HIM   AS   A   PUBLIC   TEACHER, 

AKD  OF 
SINCERE   PERSONAL    REGARD   AS   A   PRECEPTOR, 

BY    HIS    FRIEND    AND    FORMER    PUPIL, 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


A  NEW  work  on  Toxicology  will  doubtless  be  regarded  by 
some  as  uncalled  for,  since  there  already  exist  so  many 
excellent  treatises  on  this  subject,  both  in  our  own  and  in 
foreign  languages.  This  objection,  however,  might  be  equally 
urged  against  new  publications  in  almost  every  department 
of  science :  there  is  scarcely  one  of  which  it  may  not  be 
affirmed  that  its  literature  is  already  abundantly  supplied. 
Yet  this  does  not  deter  new  authors  from  venturing  before 
the  public,  prompted,  doubtless,  by  the  desire  of  offering 
something  of  at  least  a  passing  value,  and  of  adding,  it  may 
be,  a  fragment  to  the  store  of  human  knowledge. 

The  author  is  fully  aware  that  the  field  of  investigation 
on  which  he  has  entered  has  already  been  very  thoroughly 
explored  by  others.  Names  illustrious  in  the  annals  of 
medical  and  toxicological  science  are  identified  with  this 
subject  throughout  the  civilized  world.  Yet  he  ventures  to 
hope  that  the  present  treatise  will  be  found  a  useful  text- 
book, both  by  the  student  and  the  teacher  of  Toxicology. 
From  an  experience  of  a  number  of  years,  he  may  presume 
to  speak  with  some  authority  to  the  former,  as  likewise  with 
some  degree  of  confidence  to  the  latter,  upon  topics  with 
which  he  is  personally  familiar.  His  aim  has  been  to 
convey  his  meaning  in  the  simplest  style  and  phraseology, 
believing  this  to  be  the  most  efficient  method  of  teaching 
others. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

The  recorded  experience  of  authorities  becomes  the  com- 
mon property  of  all  who  ma}7  receive  it ;  and  it  may  be  freely 
used  by  them,  and  reproduced,  provided  always  that  due 
credit  is  awarded  to  the  originals.  Influenced  by  this  view, 
the  author  feels  that  he  needs  no  apology  for  his  free  quota- 
tions from  standard  toxicological  and  chemical  authorities, 
both  native  and  foreign.  Among  the  former,  he  would 
specially  mention  Wharton  and  Stille's  "Medical  Jurispru- 
dence/' the  last  edition  (1873)  of  which  is  so  copious  and 
complete;'  and  Prof.  "Wormley's  beautifully  illustrated  "Mi- 
cro-Chemistry of  Poisons."  To  the  latter  he  is  particularly 
indebted  for  hints  in  testing  for  very  minute  portions  of  cer- 
tain poisons.  Among  foreign  authorities,  the  classic  treatises 
of  Professors  Taylor  and  Guy,  of  London,  of  Sir  R.  Chris- 
tison,  of  Edinburgh,  of  Orfila  and  Tardieu,  of  Paris,  and  of 
Professor  Casper,  of  Berlin,  deserve  especial  notice :  each 
has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  completeness  of  the  present 
volume,  as  the  reader  will  perceive  by  the  numerous  refer- 
ences to  their  names  in  the  following  pages. 

More  than  a  passing  reference  is  due  to  Dr.  A.  S.  Taylor, 
of  London,  from  whose  elaborate  works,  "On  Poisons,"  and 
"  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  1873, 
the  author  has  enriched  his  present  treatise,  especially  in 
the  matter  of  illustrative  cases,  as  also  in  some  other  par- 
ticulars. 

It  will  be  observed  that  more  particular  attention,  in  the 
details,  has  been  bestowed  upon  certain  special  poisons,  as. 
for  example,  Arsenic,  Phosphorus,  Opium,  Strychnia,  etc., 
because  of  their  relatively  greater  importance  to  the  toxicolo- 
gist.  In  the  first  portion  of  the  work,  a  chapter  has  been 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  "  Post-mortem  Imbibition  of  Poi- 
sons," and  another  to  the  "Duties  and  Privileges  of  Medical 
Experts," — topics  which  the  author  believes  have  not  received 


PREFACE.  IX 

sufficient  consideration,  and  which  possess  very  great  im- 
portance for  the  toxicologist  and  the  legal  physician. 

The  subject  of  spectrum-analysis  has  not  been  treated  of  in 
the  present  volume.  This  truly  beautiful  method  of  analyt- 
ical research  has  developed  the  most  wonderful  results  both 
in  chemistry  and  in  other  departments  of  science.  In  point 
of  delicacy,  it  far  transcends  the  most  subtle  and  refined 
chemical  reactions ;  and  as  a  corroborative  means  of  evi- 
dence, it  will  doubtless  prove  of  great  value  to  the  toxicolo- 
gist. But  as  it  deals,  so  to  speak,  with  infinitesimals,  we 
do  not  think  that  it  would  be  safe,  in  a  case  of  alleged  poi- 
soning, to  rest  the  evidence  solely  upon  the  spectral  demon- 
stration of  the  supposed  toxic  agent,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
recognized  chemical  tests.  When  an  accumulated  experience 
with  spectral  analysis  has  rendered  the  identification  of  the 
various  poisons  absolutely  and  exclusively  certain,  we  can 
probably  aft'ord  to  abandon  altogether  the  more  tedious  and 
complex  methods  of  chemical  research. 

The  author  commits  his  work  to  the  profession  with  the 
assurance  that  he  has  striven  to  perform  his  part  carefully 
and  conscientiously,  and  promises  to  profit  by  any  friendly 
criticisms,  if  his  book  should  have  the  good  fortune  to  reach 
another  edition. 


PHILADELPHIA,  1840  GREEN  STREET, 
March,  1874. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    1. 

PAG  I 

Preliminary    Considerations.  —  Definition  of   a   Poison. — Deleterious 

substances  not  properly  poisons i         .13 

CHAPTER    II. 

Mode  of  action  of  Poisons  on  the  animal  economy. — Local  and  remote 

effects  of  poisons  .........  18 

SECTION  I.  The  different  modes  by  which  Poisons  gain  access  to 
the  various  organs  of  the  body. — Nervous  communication,  or 
Sympathy. — Contiguity  of  structure  ......  20 

SECTION  II.  Absorption  of  Poisons. — Circumstances  influencing 
Absorption. — Subsequent  disposition  of  the  poison. — Elimina- 
tion of  poisons. — Cause  of  death  by  poisons  .  .  .  .  22 

CHAPTER    III. 

Circumstances  which  modify  the  action  of  poisons.  —  Quantity  and 
Form. — Modifying  influence  of  the  part  of  the  body  to  which 
the  poison  is  applied. — Influence  of  Habit — of  Idiosyncrasy — 
of  Disease — of  Tolerance  ........  33 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Post-mortem   Imbibition  of    Poisons.  —  Its    influence   in   medico-legal 


38 


CHAPTER    V. 
Evidences  of  Poisoning     .         .         .         .         •  ,     •         •         •         ...     45 

SKCTION   I.     Evidences  afforded   by  the  Symptoms. — Diseases  re- 
sembling Poisoning      . '       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .45 

SECTION  II.     Evidences  derived  from  Post-mortem  appearances. — 

Lesions  common  to  Disease  and  Poisoning .....     56 

SECTION  III.     Inspection  of  the  body. — Collection  and  preservation 

of  the  suspected  materials    ........     62 

SECTION  IV.     Evidence  from  Chemical  Analysis. — Causes  of  fail- 
ure   in    the    Chemical    Analysis  — Objects  of    the    Chemical 
Analysis.  —  Precautions    to    be    observed.  —  Accuracy    of   the 
Analysis. — Impurities  in  Reagents      ......     67 

xi 


Xli  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

SECTION' V.  Evidence  derived  from  experiments  on  animals. — 

Precautions  to  be  observed 80 

SECTION  VI.  Evidence  derived  from  the  circumstances  (Moral 

Evidence) 87 

CHAPTER     VI. 

Compound  Poisoning.  —  Antagonism  of  Poisons.  —  Case  of  Dr.  Paul 

Schoeppe 91 

CHAPTER    VII. 

Method  of  Chemical  Procedure  in  a  case  of  suspected  Poisoning. — 

Dialysis ...98 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
Medico-legal  questions  connected  with  Poisoning 114 

CHAPTER    IX. 

Duties  and  Privileges  of  Medical  Experts. — Subpoenas. — Compensation. 

— Defrauding  of  Experts 119 

CHAPTER     X. 

Classification  of  Poisons 132 

CHAPTER    XL 
CLASS  I.     Irritant  Poisons 135 

SECTION  I.  Poisoning  by  Sulphuric  Acid. —  Symptoms. —  Fatal 
period. — Fatal  quantity. — Treatment. — Post-mortem  appear- 
ances.— Absorption  and  elimination. — Chemical  analysis. — 
Detection  in  organic  matters. — Detection  of  spots. — Quanti- 
tative analysis  .  »  % 137 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Nitric  Acid. — Symptoms. — Fatal  dose. 
—  Fatal  period. — Treatment.  —  Post-mortem  appearances. — 
Chemical  analysis. — Detection  in  organic  matters. — Absorp- 
tion and  elimination. — Examination  of  suspected  stains  .  .  149 

SECTION  III.  Poisoning  by  Hydrochloric  (Muriatic)  Acid. — Symp- 
toms.— Fatal  dose. — Post-mortem  signs. — Detection  in  organic 
matters.  —  Examination  of  suspected  stains. — Quantitative 
analysis  .  158 

SECTION  IV.  Poisoning  by  Oxalic  Acid. — Symptoms. — Fatal 
dose. — Fatal  period.  —  Treatment.  —  Morbid  appearances.  — 
Chemical  analysis. — Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Quanti- 
tative analysis. — Examination  of  stains. — Poisoning  by  Bin- 
oxalate  of  Potassa  (Salt  of  Sorrel) 162 

SECTION  V.  Poisoning  by  Tartaric  Acid — Citric  Acid — Acetic 

Acid  .  173 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

CHAPTEK    XII. 

PAGE 

Poisoning  by  the  Alkalies  and  their  Salts  ;  also  by  the  Earthy  Salts      .     175 
SECTION  I.     Poisoning  by  Potassa,  Soda,  and  Ammonia. — Symp- 
toms.— Fatal     dose.  — Treatment.  —  Morbid    appearances.  — 
Chemical    properties. — Chemical  analysis  of    Potassa  and  its 
Carbonate. — Fallacy.— Chemical  analysis  of  Soda  and  its  Car- 
bonate.— Chemical  analysis  of  Ammonia  and  its  Salts. — De- 
tection in  organic  mixtures         .         .'.'..         .         .        >     175 
SECTION  II.     Poisoning  by  the  Alkaline  and  Earthy  Salts. — Ni- 
trate of  Potassa. — Bitartrate  of  Potassa. — Sulphate  of  Potassa. 
— Alum.— Chlorinated  Potassa  and  Soda. — Salts  of  Baryta     .     184 

CHAPTEK     XIII. 

Irritants  having  remote  specific  properties *     193 

SECTION  I.  Poisoning  by  Phosphorus.  —  Symptoms.  —  Chronic 
Poisoning. — Fatal  dose. — Fatal  period. — Treatment. — Morbid 
Appearances.  —  Diagnosis. — Chemical  analysis.  —  Process  of 
Mitscherlich  and  Lipowitz  — The  Hydrogen  method. — Phos- 
phoric Acid. — Tests. — Amorphous  or  Allotropic  Phosphorus  .  194 
SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Iodine  and  Bromine. — Symptoms. — 

Chemical  analysis       .........     209 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

Poisoning  by  Arsenic. — Metallic  Arsenic  — Arsenious  Acid. — Proper- 
ties.— Symptoms. — Chronic  poisoning. — First  appearance  of 
symptoms. — External  application.  —  Fatal  dose.  —  Fatal  pe- 
riod.— Post-mortem  appearances. — Antiseptic  power. — Treat- 
ment. —  Chemical  analysis.  —  Eeduction  process. —  Liquid 
Tests. — Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  Test. — Marsh's  Test  and  modi- 
fications.—  Eeinsch's  Test. — Fallacies.  —  Bloxam's  method. — 
Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Separation  from  the  tissues. 
— Other  preparations  of  Arsenic  ......  214 

CHAPTER    XV. 

Poisoning  by  Antimony. — Tartar  Emetic. — Properties. — Symptoms. — 
Fatal  dose.  —  Fatal  period.  —  Post-mortem  appearances. — 
Treatment. — Slow  poisoning. — External  application. — Chem- 
ical analysis. — Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  Test. — Galvanic  Test. 
— Marsh's  Test. — Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Importance 
of  obtaining  the  metal. — Recovery  from  the  tissues. — Chlo- 
ride of  Antimony  .  .  .  .  .  .  t  - ,  .  253 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

Poisoning  by  Mercury.  —  Corrosive  Sublimate. —  Properties. — Symp- 
toms.— External  application. — Fatal  dose. — Fatal  period. — 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Mortality. — Treatment. — Post-mortem  appearances. — Chronic 
poisoning. — Chemical  analysis. —  Reinsch's  Test. — Galvanic 
Test. — Detection  in  organic  mixtures — in  the  tissues  and 
urine. — Relation  to  salivation. — Quantitative  determination. 
— Other  preparations  of  Mercury 272 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

Poisoning  by  Copper. — Accidental  poisoning. — Salts  of  Copper.  —Symp- 
toms.— Fatal  dose. — Fatal  period. — Treatment. — Morbid  ap- 
pearances.— Chemical  analysis. — Detection  in  organic  mix- 
tures— in  the  stomach  and  its  contents — in  the  tissues — in 
the  urine. — Quantitative  estimate 289 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

Poisoning  by  Lead. — Accidental  poisoning. — External  application. — 
Contamination  of  drinking-water.  —  Acetate,  or  Sugar  of 
Lead. — Symptoms. — Fatal  dose. — Fatal  period. — Treatment. 
— Post-mortem  appearances. — Chronic  poisoning. — Painter's 
colic. — Lead-palsy. — Chemical  analysis. — Detection  in  organic 
matters — in  the  stomach — in  the  tissues — in  the  urine. — 
Quantitative  determination 805 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

Poisoning  by  Zinc,  Bismuth,  Tin,  Iron,  and  Chromium         .         .         .     322 
SECTION   I.     Poisoning  by  Zinc. — Sulphate  of  Zinc. — Symptoms. 
— Morbid   lesions. — Chloride  of  Zinc. — Treatment. — Tests. — 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures 322 

SECTION   II.     Poisoning  by  Bismuth. — Subnitrate  of  Bismuth. — 

Contamination  with  arsenic. — Tests           .....     827 
SECTION   III.     Poisoning  by  Salts  of  Tin  — Preparations  of  Iron. 
—  Preparations   of   Chromium. —  Bichromate   of    Potassa. — 
Chemical  analysis 329 

CHAPTER    XX. 

Vegetable  and  Animal  Irritants       ........     331 

SECTION  I.  Vegetable  Irritants.—  Drastics.— Croton  Oil. — Elate- 
rium. — Aloes. — Colocynth. —  Colchicum.  — Castor-oil  seeds. — 
Savin 331 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Black,  Green,  and  White  Hellebore. — 

Veratria 337 

SECTION  III.  Poisoning  by  Carbolic  Acid. — Symptoms. — Fatal 

quantity. — Chemical  analysis. — Poisoning  by  Yellow  Jessamine  842 

SECTION   IV.     Poisonous  Mushrooms  (Fungi)  — Symptoms   .         .     345 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER     XXI. 

PAGE 

Animal  Irritants      ...........  349 

SECTION   I.     Poisoning  by  Cantharides. — Symptoms. — Fatal  quan- 
tity.— Treatment. — Post-mortem  signs. — Cantharidin       .         .  349 
SECTION   II.     Poisonous  Animal  Food. — Sausage-Poison. — Trichi- 

niasis. — Cheese-Poison        ........  353 

SECTION   III.     Poisonous  Fish. — Mussels        .....  356 

SECTION   IV.    Poisoning  by  Putrescent  Food. — Poisoned  Meat    .  358 

CHAPTER     XXII. 

CLASS   II.     Neurotic  Poisons. — ORDER  I. — Cerebral  Neurotics     .         .     361 
SECTION  I.    Narcotics. — Poisoning  by  Opium. — Symptoms. — Fatal 
period. — Fatal     dose. — External     application.  —  Morbid    ap- 
pearances. —  Treatment.  —  Morphia. — Fatal    dose.  —  Chemical 
analysis  of  Opium. — Detection  of  Morphia. — Meconic  Acid. 
—  Tests.  —  Narcotina. — Codeia. — Narceine. — Thebaia. — Meco- 
nin. — Detection  of  Opium  in  organic  mixtures. — Examination 
for  Morphia  alone. — Detection  in  the  tissues  and  blood     .         .     361 
SECTION   II.     Poisoning  by  Alcohol. — Post-mortem  appearances. 

— Diagnosis. — Chemical  analysis. — Detection  in  the  tissues      .     385 

CHAPTER     XXIII. 
Anaesthetics       ............     389 

SECTION    I.     Poisoning  by  Ether. — Symptoms. — Morbid  lesions. — 

Chemical  analysis       .........     389 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Chloroform. — Effects  and  symptoms. — 
Post-mortem  appearances. — Treatment. — Analysis. — Hydrate 
of  Chloral. — Chemical  properties. — Detection  in  the  body  .  390 

CHAPTER     XXIV. 

ORDER  II. — Spinal  Neurotics,  or  Tetanics. —  Poisoning  by  Nux  Vomica. 
— Strychnia. — Properties. — Symptoms. — Period  of  invasion. — 
Fatal  dose. — Fatal  period. — Treatment. — Post-mortem  signs. 
— Diagnosis. — Chemical  analysis. — Bitter  taste. — Color  test. — 
Fallacies. — Interferences. — The  Frog  Test. — Recovery  from 
organic  mixtures  and  contents  of  the  stomach. — Detection  in 
the  tissues,  blood,  and  urine. — Failure  to  detect. — Brucia. — 
Properties.— Tests 39tl 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

ORDER  III. — Cerebro- spinal  Neurotics. — Deliriants       ....     436 
SECTION   I.     Poisoning  by  Belladonna. — Symptoms.- — Character  of 
the   delirium. — External   application. — Atropia. — Fatal   dose. 
— Treatment. — Morbid    lesions  — Chemical    analysis. — Detec- 
tion in  organic  mixtures. — Physiological  test    ....     436 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

FAOI 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Stramonium.  —  Properties.  —  Symp- 
toms.—Post-mortem  appearances. — Analysis. — Daturia  .  .  444 

SECTION  III.  Poisoning  by  Hyosoyamus.  —  Properties. — Symp- 
toms.— Idiosyncrasies. — Analysis. — Hyoscyamia  .  .  .  447 

SECTION  IV.  Poisoning  by  Solanum. — Solanum  dulcamara,  or 
Bittersweet. — Solanum  nigrum,  or  Garden  Nightshade. — Sola- 
num tuberosum,  or  Potato. — Solania. — Tests  ....  449 

CHAPTER    XXVI. 
Depressants 452 

SECTION  I.  Poisoning  by  Hemlock.  —  Properties. — Post-mortem 
appearances. — Conia.  —  Treatment.  —  Chemical  properties.— 
Tests.  —  Detection  in  organic  mixtures.  —  Other  species  of 
Hemlock 452 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Tobacco. — Symptoms. — External  ap- 
plication.— Morbid  lesions. — Nicotina. — Properties. — Case  of 
the  Count  Bocarme. — Chemical  reactions. — Separation  from 
organic  mixtures  and  from  the  stomach. — Poisoning  by  Lobe- 
lia.— Lobelina. — Effects  on  the  system 457 

SECTION  III.  Poisoning  by  Aconite. — Properties. — Symptoms. — 
Morbid  lesions.  —  Aconitia.  —  Properties.  —  Treatment. — De- 
tection in  organic  matters  ........  465 

SECTION  IV.  Poisoning  by  Calabar  Bean. — Properties. — Effects 
on-  the  system. — Treatment. — Physostigmia. — Chemical  prop- 
erties    ...  471 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 
Asthenias 474 

SECTION  I.  Poisoning  by  Hydrocyanic  (Prussic)  Acid. — Proper- 
ties. —  Symptoms.  —  Rapidity  of  invasion.  —  Fatal  dose.  — 
Treatment. — Post-mortem  appearances. — Tests. — Process  by 
distillation. — Quantitative  analysis. — Cyanide  of  Potassium. 
—  Oil  of  Bitter  Almonds.  —  Cherry-Laurel-Water. — Nitro- 
Benzole,  or  Essence  of  Mirbane 474 

SECTION  II.  Poisoning  by  Digitalis. — Symptoms. — Post-mortem 
1  signs. —  Digitaline.  —  Chemical  reactions. — Detection  in  or- 
ganic mixtures.  —  Physiological  test.  —  Case  of  De  la  Pom- 
merais  .".... 490 

SECTION  III.  Poisoning  by  Cocculus  Indicus. — Symptoms. — Ex-, 
ternal  application. — Picrotoxia. — Chemical  reactions. — Sepa- 
ration from  organic  mixtures. — Poisoning  by  Laburnum. — 
Yew.— Privet.— Guelder  Rose.— Holly 496 


MANUAL  OF  TOXICOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS. 

TOXICOLOGY — from  r«£tx<Jy,'a  poison,  and  Ao^o<r,  a  discourse— 
signifies  the  science  which  treats  of  Poisons.  It  embraces 
the  consideration  of  their  nature,  properties,  history,  mode 
of  procuring,  effects  on  the  animal  system,  fatal  dose,  anti- 
dotes, and  means  of  detection  by  chemical  analysis  and  by 
other  methods. 

The  subject  of  Poisoning  very  properly  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place  in  medical  jurisprudence,  since  in  a  large  majority 
of  the  cases  of  violent  death  that  claim  the  attention  of  the 
legal  physician,  the  fatal  result  is  directly  attributable  to 
poison.  Before  proceeding  to  treat  of  the  individual  poisons 
in  detail,  it  will  be  proper  first  to  discuss  some  preliminary 
points  of  a  general  character,  the  correct  understanding  of 
which  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  toxicologist,  and 
indeed,  without  which  knowledge,  he  will  be  liable  to  fall  into 
serious  errors,  when,  on  the  witness-stand,  he  undertakes  to 
enlighten  the  court  and  jury  in  some  capital  case.  We 
would,  therefore,  at  the  outset,  urge  upon  the  student  of 
Toxicology  not  only  the  importance  of  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  chemical  methods  employed  for  the  detection 
of  the  different  poisonous  agents,  but  also  the  necessity  of  a 
close  observation  of  all  the  surrounding  circumstances,  by 
which  alone  he  will  be  enabled  to  solve  the  difficult  questions 

2  13 


14  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

that  present  themselves  in  nearly  every  case  of  suspected 
poisoning. 

Among  these  questions,  the  following  offer  special  claims 
to  notice:  the  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  symptoms  that  have  attended  the  suspicions 
case;  the  character  of  the  post-mortem  lesions,  when  the 
case  has  terminated  fatally  ;  the  proper  mode  of  conducting 
the  autopsy ;  the  value  of  the  signs  afforded  by  experiments 
upon  the  lower  animals,  as  tending  to  strengthen  or  to  in- 
validate the  suspicion  of  poison  derived  from  other  sources; 
and  finally,  the  necessity  of  a  rigorous  observance  of  the  rules 
laid  down  for  a  strict  and  impartial  chemical  analysis. 

Besides  the  above  considerations,  there  are  others  that  will 
not  escape  the  attention  of  the  educated  toxicologist.  Thus, 
he  will  give  due  attention  to  the  conduct  and  deportment  of 
the  persons  in  attendance  upon  the  patient;  he  will  not  fail 
to  notice  any  unnatural  solicitude  about  the  removal  of 
articles  of  medicine  or  food,  or  of  the  matters  ejected  from 
the  stomach  and  bowels;  any  undue  anxiety  to  exclude  all 
others  from  waiting  upon  the  patient;  and,  in  case  of  death, 
a  disposition  to  avoid  a  post-mortem  examination,  and  to 
hasten  the  interment  of  the  body  with  an  undue  haste.  These 
different  subjects  will  therefore  receive  a  proper  considera- 
tion, together  with  a  study  of  the  various  circumstances  which 
modify  the  effects  of  poisons  on  the  human  system,  such  as 
age,  habit,  idiosyncrasy,  disease,  quantity  of  the  poison,  con- 
dition of  the  stomach,  etc. 

A  POISON  may  be  defined  to  be  a  substance  capable  of  pro- 
ducing noxious  and  even  fatal  effects  upon  the  system,  no  matter  by 
what  avenue  it  be  introduced ;  and  this,  as  an  ordinary  result,  in  a 
healthy  state  of  the  body,  and  not  by  a  mechanical  action.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  above  definition  of  a  poison  is  carefully 
worded,  in  order  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  its  meaning. 
Thus,  the  poisonous  effect  must  be  an  ordinary  remit  of  its 
administration.  A  substance  which  affects  one  person  in 
consequence  of  some  idiosyncrasy  or  peculiarity  of  consti- 
tution, but  does  not  affect  others,  is  not  a  poison.  The  most 
simple  articles  of  food  may  act  poisonously  upon  certain  in- 
dividuals, through  this  idiosyncrasy ;  we  have  known  a  case 


PRELIMINARY   CONSIDERATIONS.  15 

in  which  strawberries  produced  this  effect  habitually ;  and 
the  records  of  medicine  are  full  of  such  instances.  Again, 
to  constitute  a  substance  a  poison,  its  noxious  effects  must  be 
produced  on  the  healthy  system.  It  is  well  known  that  many 
diseased  conditions  of  the  body  render  it  extremely  suscep- 
tible to  impressions  by  external  agents,  even  those  other- 
wise the  most  harmless.  Thus,  in  acute  inflammation  of 
the  stomach,  almost  any  substance — even  water — may  excite 
vomiting  and  pain;  so  also,  the  copious  drinking  of  cold 
water  by  a  person  heated  by  violent  exercise  may  occasion 
sudden  death;  yet  water  is  not  a  poison.  In  a  certain  dis- 
eased condition  (granular)  of  the  kidneys,  it  has  been  found 
that  calomel,  even  in  small  doses,  proves  very  injurious;  yet 
calomel  is  not  ordinarily  regarded  as  strictly  a  poison.  Again, 
iu  order  to  bring  a  substance  within  the  strict  definition  of 
a  "  poison,"  it  must  not  act  mechanically.  Certain  bodies, 
such  as  pins  and  needles,  powdered  glass,  fragments  of  iron 
and  other  metals,  and  the  stones  and  seeds  of  fruits  when 
swallowed,  may  cause  serious  and  even  fatal  results  by  their 
mechanical  action,  producing  irritation  and  inflammation  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal ;  but  these  are 
not  poisons. 

According  to  our  definition,  a  poison  produces  its  delete- 
rious effects  upon  the  system,  no  matter  by  what  avenue  it  be 
introduced.  Most  usually,  poisons  are  swallowed  into  the 
stomach,  and  are  thence  absorbed  into  the  circulation.  But 
they  act  often  with  far  greater  vigor  when  inhaled  into  the 
lungs  in  the  form  of  vapor,  when  injected  into  the  rectum, 
when  introduced  hypoderrnically,  or  when  applied  to  an 
ulcerated  or  abraded  surface.  They  are  also  absorbed,  though 
not  so  rapidly,  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  vagina,  the 
nose,  and  the  ear,  and  even  from  the  sound  skin.  It  is  to  be 
understood  that  in  all  of  the  above  instances,  the  poison  pro- 
duces its  peculiar  effects  by  being  absorbed  into  the  circula- 
tion ;  and  the  rapidity  of  its  effects  will  always  be,  coderis 
paribus,  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  its  absorption.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  when  a  poison  is  directly  injected  into 
the  blood-vessels,  its  action  is  so  immediate. 

The  question  of  quantity,  or  size  of  the  dose  of  the  poisonous 


16  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

substance,  does  not  enter  into  the  account  in  case  of  an  in- 
dictment for  poisoning.  In  medico-legal  inquiries,  the  main 
object  of  proof  is  to  connect  the  results — i.e.,  the  symptoms, 
ksions,  and  chemical  analysis — directly  with  the  substance  em- 
ployed, and  with  the  intention  of  the  person  employing  it. 
Thus,  the  law  makes  no  distinction  between  a  murder  com- 
mitted by  the  administration  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  and  one 
resulting  from  taking  an  ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  provided  both 
were  given  with  the  same  evil  design ;  each  is  equally  fatal, 
although  they  differ  so  widely  in  their  fatal  dose.  There  are 
some  substances,  such  as  sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  salt) 
and  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  which  are  generally 
regarded  as  innocuous,  but  which  have  occasioned  death  in 
several  instances  where  very  large  doses  have  been  taken. 
Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  Am.  ed.,  1859,  p.  19)  mentions 
the  case  of  a  young  lady  who  died  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
in  consequence  of  swallowing  about  half  a  pound  of  common 
salt  as  a  remedy  for  worms.  General  paralysis  set  in  in 
about  two  hours,  and  all  remedies,  including  the  stomach- 
pump,  proved  unavailing.  The  post-mortem  appearances 
indicated  excessive  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Sir  K. 
Christison  mentions  an  instance  in  which  a  man  died,  after 
swallowing  a  pound  of  this  salt,  within  twenty-four  hours, 
with  all  the  symptoms  of  irritant  poisoning;  also  another 
case,  in  which  two  ounces  of  the  same  salt  produced  very 
alarming  symptoms  in  a  young  man.  This  author  also  quotes 
a  case  of  a  boy  ten  years  old,  who  died  within  one  hour  after 
swallowing  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salt,  administered  as  a 
remedy  for  worms;  violent  symptoms  immediately  came  on, 
such  as  great  depression,  slow  and  difficult  breathing,  pulse 
almost  imperceptible,  but  no  vomiting  or  purging.  It  is 
further  stated  that  after  death,  no  morbid  appearances  were 
observed  in  the  body.  (Christison  on  Poisons,  p.  657.) 

From  the  above  remarks  it  will  be  evident  that  the  mere 
quantity  of  the  substance  required  to  destroy  life  cannot  be 
made  a  ground  of  distinction  between  a  poisonous  and  a  (so- 
called)  non-poisonous  article.  In  the  language  of  Dr.  Taylor 
(loc.  c#.),  "if  a  medical  witness  be  asked,  What  is  a  poison? 
lie  must  beware  of  adopting  this  common  definition,  or  of 


PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIONS.  17 

confining  the  term  *  poison'  to  a  substance  capable  of  oper- 
ating as  such  in  a  small  dose  given  at  once." 

The  term  deadly  poison  is  popularly  applied  to  such  virulent 
substances  as  destroy  life  very  speedily  and  when  taken  in 
small  doses,  such  as  prussic  acid,  strychnia,  arsenic,  nicotina, 
etc.  In  the  wording  of  an  indictment  for  poisoning,  it  is 
customary  to  describe  every  poison  as  deadly,  although,  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  term,  many  fatal  poisons  cannot  fairly  be 
thus  described.  The  question,  however,  may  now  be  con- 
sidered as  settled  by  judicial  decision  that  the  word  "deadly" 
is  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  an  indictment  (Law  Times, 
April  12,1845);  its  use,  therefore,  in  this  connection  may  be 
regarded  as  superfluous. 

If  the  substance  administered  with  criminal  intent  is 
capable  of  destro}7ing  the  health  or  the  life  of  an  individual, 
the  law  makes  no  account,  so  far  as  the  responsibility  of  the 
prisoner  is  concerned,  of  the  manner  by  which  life  was  de- 
stroyed,—whether  by  chemical  or  mechanical  means.  In 
order,  however,  properly  to  include  all  the  possible  methods, 
the  English  statute  runs  thus :  "  Whoever  shall  administer, 
or  cause  to  be  taken,  any  poison  or  other  destructive  thing,  with 
intent  to  commit  murder,  shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  and  being 
convicted  thereof,  shall  suffer  death."  Here  the  phrase  "  other 
destructive  thing''  is  intended  to  cover  the  whole  ground,  and 
to  preclude  the  possibility  of  escape  through  a  faulty  indict- 
ment. The  laws  of  the  United  States  in  relation  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  poisons  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of 
Great  Britain. 

In  relation  to  the  dangerous  results  which  not  unfrequently 
follow  the  swallowing  of  irritating  bodies  (as  already  men- 
tioned), such  as  powdered  glass,  pins  and  needles,  etc.,  which 
act  only  mechanically,  it  should  be  remembered  that  many 
small  substances,  such  as  the  seeds  of  various  fruits,  are  liable 
to  cause  death  by  entering  into  the  appendix  vermiformis  of  the 
cificum,  and  there  exciting  a  fatal  peritonitis.  In  such  cases 
the  effects  may  be  erroneously  ascribed  to  an  irritant  poison  ; 
and  the  real  cause  of  death  will  be  revealed  only  by  a  post- 
mortem examination. 

Further,  certain  substances,  when  swallowed,  may  produce 


18  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

alarming,  and  even  fatal,  effects,  by  simply  over-distending 
the  stomach.  A  case  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Taylor  of  a  young 
woman  who  took  a  quantity  of  raw  rice  mixed  with  milk. 
She  soon  became  alarmingly  ill,  suffering  with  symptoms  of 
over-distension  of  the  stomach.  She  was  much  relieved  for 
the  time  by  an  emetic;  but  on  the  following  day  the  pain 
and  anxiety  returned,  and  she  died  in  twenty-four  hours  after 
swallowing  the  rice.  A  post-mortem  examination  revealed 
an  extensive  recent  peritonitis.  It  occasionally  happens  that 
a  person  dies  from  over-distension  of  the  stomach  occasioned 
by  eating  a  hearty  meal.  In  such  cases,  the  actual  cause  of 
death  is  to  be  ascribed  either  to  apoplexy  (arising  from  the 
distension),  or  to  shock.  Such  an  accident  may  happen 
at  any  age ;  and  as  the  symptoms  come  on  suddenly  after 
eating,  and  are  of  a  very  alarming  character,  the  suspicion 
of  poisoning  may  very  naturally  be  excited,  and  the  real 
cause  of  death  will  be  discovered  only  by  a  proper  examina- 
tion of  the  body. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MODE   OF    ACTION    OF   POISONS    ON   THE   ANIMAL    ECONOMY. 

THIS  action  is  of  a  twofold  character:  (1)  local,  and  (2) 
remote. 

1.  Local  Effects  of  Poisons. — By  this  is  understood  the  direct 
impression  of  a  poison  upon  that  part  of  the  body  with  which 
it  comes  into  immediate  contact.  The  effects  thus  produced 
are,  for  the  most  part,  of  an  irritant  or  corrosive  character. 
The  strong  mineral  acids  and  alkalies,  for  example,  if  applied 
externally,  or  taken  internally,  by  virtue  of  their  chemical 
affinities  exert  a  destructive  or  corrosive  action  upon  the 
tissue  to  which  they  are  applied ;  and  they  may  prove  fatal 
either  by  the  shock  occasioned  to  the  nervous  system  (pre- 
cisely as  in  the  case  of  a  severe  superficial  scald  or  burn),  or 
else,  through  their  destructive  agency,  by  causing  a  perfora- 
tion of  the  stomach  or  intestines,  and  thus  bringing  on  fatal 


REMOTE   EFFECTS   OF   POISONS.  19 

peritonitis.  Frequently  the  local  effect  of  a  poison  results 
merely  in  inflammation  of  the  part,  which,  however,  maj^  pro- 
ceed to  suppuration,  ulceration,  and  gangrene.  Examples  of 
this  are  afforded  in  the  action  of  such  irritants  as  arsenic, 
tartar  emetic,  salts  of  copper  and  zinc,  cantharides,  and  nu- 
merous vegetable  substances,  all  of  which  produce  a  local 
irritant  impression  when  taken  internally,  or  when  applied 
externally ;  although  some  of  them  may  at  the  same  time 
exert  a  general  or  constitutional  impression,  as  e.g.  arsenic 
and  tartar  emetic.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  action  of 
the  local  poisons  above  alluded  to  closely  resembles  that  of 
mechanical  irritants,  except  that  these  latter  exert  no  local 
chemical  effects. 

The  local  effects  of  another  class  of  poisons  appear  to  be 
especially  directed  to  the  sensory  nerves,  producing  a  be- 
numbing or  paralyzing  sensation.  Thus,  aconite  root,  when 
chewed,  occasions  a  pricking,  benumbing  feeling  to  the 
tongue  and  fauces ;  chloroform,  prussic  acid,  and  veratria, 
when  applied  to  the  skin,  produce  a  sensation  of  numbness ; 
opium,  prussic  acid,  and  ticunas,  if  applied  directly  to  the 
muscles,  occasion  paralysis ;  and  belladonna  and  Calabar  bean 
produce  the  same  influence  on  the  muscular  fibre  of  the  iris 
when  directly  applied  to  the  eye, — the  former  dilating  the 
pupil,  and  the  latter  contracting  it. 

2.  Remote  Effects  of  Poisons.  — By  this  we  understand  those 
results  which  are  produced  in  parts  of  the  system  remote 
from  that  to  which  the  poison  was  originally  applied.  The 
same  substance,  however,  often  exerts  both  a  local  and  a 
remote  action,  as  already  observed. 

The  remote  effects  of  poisons  are  twofold — common  and 
specific.  Their  common  effect  is  the  same  as  that  which  would 
result  from  any  common  severe  injury  inflicted  upon  the 
part;  their  specific  effect  is  that  which  the  poison  alone  could 
produce.  Moreover,  the  remote  specific  effect  may  be  either 
general — producing  a  general  specific  impression  on  the  whole 
frame,  as  e.g.  the  general  depression  caused  by  tartar  emetic, 
or  local,  as  e.g.  the  local  action  of  tartar  emetic  upon  the  lungs 
and  skin,  or  that  of  mercury  upon  the  salivary  glands. 

A  proper  understanding  of  the  remote  effects  of  poisons 


20  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

constitutes  the  really  important  problem  to  be  determined  :  it 
is  that  which  will  indicate  the  poison  itself.  Thus,  a  grad- 
ually increasing  stupor  is  a  very  significant  indication  of 
opium-poisoning;  tetanic  spasms  are  strongly  suggestive  of 
strychnia;  salivation,  with  fetid  breath,  points  to  mercury; 
certain  forms  of  paralysis  are  symptomatic  of  lead  or  mer- 
curial poisoning,  etc.  These  remote  effects,  or  manifesta- 
tions, in  fact,  constitute  a  most  important  class  of  symptoms 
of  poisoning — a  very  valuable  factor  in  aiding  us  to  arrive 
at  a  positive  conclusion  in  a  suspected  case,  but  one,  never- 
theless, which  must  be  cautiously  employed,  since  there  are 
many  diseases  whose,  symptoms  very  strongly  resemble  those 
of  poisons  (vide  post). 

In  order  properly  to  understand  the  remote  action  of 
poisons,  the  question  must  first  be  determined — How  do 
poisons  gain  access  to  the  different  organs  of  the  body  after 
being  swallowed  into  the  stomach,  injected  into  the  rectum, 
inhaled  into  the  lungs,  or  introduced  hypodermically  into  the 
cellular  tissue?  This  question  will  be  discussed  in  the  suc- 
ceeding section. 

SECTION  I. 

THE   DIFFERENT    MODES    BT   WHICH    POISONS    GAIN  ACCESS   TO   THE   VARIOUS 
ORGANS   OF   THE   BODY. 

There  are  only  three  conceivable  means  by  which  the  in- 
fluence of  poisons  can  be  transferred  to  distant  organs,  viz., 
(1)  by  propagation  of  their  impression  by  nervous  commu- 
nication to  the  great  nerve-centres ;  (2)  by  contiguity  of 
structure;  and  (3)  by  their  absorption  into  the  circulation. 
These  three  methods  of  transfer  will  now  be  examined. 

1.  Nervous  communication. — Sympathy. — In  the  early  history 
of  Toxicology  all  poisons  were  believed  to  act  through  sym- 
pathy. This  was  also  the  early  doctrine  with  respect  to 
medicines;  in  both  instances,  the  impression  made  on  a  part 
of  the  body  by  the  immediate  contact  of  the  substance  was 
supposed  to  be  conveyed  to  distant  parts  by  means  of  nervous 
communication,  either  directly,  or  by  reflex  action  through 
the  nervous  centres.  The  discovery  of  venous  absorption 


MODE   OF   ACTION   OF   POISONS.  21 

by  Magendie,  in  1809,  entirely  revolutionized  the  ideas  of 
physiologists  on  this  subject.  The  present  doctrine  is  in 
favor  of  the  almost  exclusive  absorption  of  both  medicines 
and  poisons.  Of  ihefact  of  the  propagation  of  impressions 
by  nervous  communication,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Familiar 
illustrations  will  readily  occur  to  the  practitioner  of  medicine, 
as  where,  in  disease,  distant  organs  are  affected  by  sympathy; 
so  that  there  would  seem  to  be  no  reason,  a  priori,  why  the 
morbid  impression  produced  by  a  poison  or  a  medicine  should 
not  be  transferred  in  a  similar  manner.  Indeed,  the  extreme 
rapidity  with  which  certain  poisonous  agents,  when  locally 
applied  to  the  body,  affect  the  centres  of  life,  rather  counte- 
nances this  mode  of  action;  whilst  the  same  velocity  appears 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  its  action  through  the  route  of 
the  circulation ;  thus,  a  drop  of  pure  prussic  acid  applied  to 
the  tongue  of  a  cat,  killed  it  almost  instantly — within  three 
or  four  seconds.  But  the  subsequent  experiments  of  Blake 
and  Hering,  by  demonstrating  the  extreme  rapidity  of  the 
circulation,  have  served  to  reconcile  the  instances  of  the  most 
speedy  action  of  certain  poisons  with  the  theory  of  absorption. 
It  is,  however,  undeniable  in  some  cases,  e.g.  those  of  rapid 
death  from  the  action  of  the  corrosives,  and  where  the  fatal 
result  is  occasioned  by  what  is  denominated  shock,  that  the 
impression  is  conveyed  from  the  point  of  injury,  through 
nervous  communication,  to  the  great  nerve-centres. 

2.  Contiguity  of  structure. — Very  little  need  be  said  on  this 
subject.  With  the  old  writers  this  was  a  favorite  method  of 
accounting  for  the  propagation  of  morbid  impressions.  It 
was  subsequently  extended  so  as  to  embrace  the  action  of 
remedial  and  toxic  agents ;  but  at  the  present  day  very  few, 
if  any,  authorities  sustain  it.  The  Absorption  of  poisons 
will  be  discussed  in  the  following  section. 


22  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 


SECTION    II. 

ABSORPTION  OF  POISONS. — CIRCUMSTANCES  INFLUENCING  ABSORPTION. — 
SUBSEQUKNT  DISPOSITION  OF  THE  POISON. — ELIMINATION  OF  POISONS. — 
CAUSE  OF  DEATH. 

3.  Absorption  of  Poisons. — This  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  methods  by  which  poisons  act  upon  the  body. 
The  fact  that  poisons  are  absorbed  into  the  circulation  after 
being  swallowed,  or  otherwise  introduced  into  the  body,  is 
fully  established  by  numerous  experiments,  both  upon  man 
and  the  lower  animals.  The  proofs  of  absorption  are  afforded 
by  their  detection  in  the  blood,  in  the  secretions,  and  in  the 
different  organs  of  the  body ;  and  the  list  of  poisons  thus 
detected  includes  every  substance  which  can  be  recognized 
by  its  color  or 'odor,  or  by  chemical  analysis.  Tiedernann 
and  Gmelin  discovered  acetate  of  lead  in  the  blood  of  the 
splenic  and  other  veins  of  dogs ;  and  cyanide  of  mercury 
and  chloride  of  barium  in  the  blood  of  the  vena  portse 
and  of  the  splenic  vein  of  the  horse.  Wohler  detected,  in 
the  urine  of  dogs  and  horses,  iodine,  sulphuret  of  potassium, 
nitrate  of  potassa,  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  the  salts  of 
nickel,  and  oxalic,  tartaric,  citric,  malic,  gallic,  succinic,  and 
beuzoic  acids.  Orfila  found  arsenious  and  arsenic  acids,  the 
arsenites,  the  soluble  arseuates,  tartar  emetic,  iodine,  potassa, 
and  its  salts,  the  salts  of  baryta,  the  mineral  acids,  ammonia, 
muriate  of  ammonia,  and  the  soluble  salts  of  lead,  copper, 
mercury,  gold,  and  silver.  He  equally  detected  the  poison 
in  the  blood,  whether  it  was  swallowed  into  the  stomach,  or 
applied  externally  (Toxicologie,  1852,  i.  p.  18). 

Since  the  time  of  Orfila,  the  advance  in  chemical  analysis 
has  further  extended  the  list  of  poisonous  substances  that 
have  been  detected  in  the  blood,  the  secretions,  and  the  tis- 
sues and  organs  of  the  body.  Even  the  organic  poisons 
(alkaloids)  prove  no  exception  to  the  rule,  as  many  of  these 
have  been  discovered  in  the  blood  and  urine,  and  a  few  even 
in  the  solids  of  the  body.  The  recognized  duty  of  the  toxi- 


ABSORPTION   OF   POISONS.  23 

cologist  of  the  present  day  is  not  merely  to  discover  the 
poison  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  but  also  to  find  it,  in 
the  absorbed  state,  in  the  different  viscera  of  the  body,  or  else 
offer  a  satisfactory  reason  for  not  finding  it  there.  (See  post, 
ELIMINATION  OF  POISONS.) 

The  detection  of  a  suspected  poison  before  death  in  the 
urine,  and  after  death,  in  this  and  in  other  secretions,  and 
particularly  its  discovery  in  the  organs  of  the  body,  affords 
the  most  unequivocal  proof  of  the  administration  of  the 
poison  before  death. 

The  absorption  of  poisons  is  influenced  by  a  variety  of 
circumstances :  (1)  Solution. — In  order  that  absorption  should 
take  place,  it  is  necessary  that  the  substance  should  be  in  a 
state  of  solution  :  insoluble  bodies  are  not  absorbed.  Many 
substances,  however,  when  swallowed  in  an  insoluble  condi- 
tion, may  afterwards  become  soluble,  by  virtue  of  certain 
chemical  agencies  set  up  in  the  stomach,  and  then  be  ab- 
sorbed. 

To  the  general  proposition  that  insoluble  bodies  are  not 
absorbed,  there  seems  to  be  an  exception  in  the  case  of  finely 
powdered  wood-charcoal.  Prof.  Oesterlen,  of  Dorpat,  and 
Mensonides,  of  Utrecht,  assert  that  they  discovered  charcoal 
in  the  veins  and  in  various  organs  of  animals  fed  upon  this 
substance  several  days  before.  MM.  Mialhe,  Lebert,  and 
Bernard  were,  however,  not  able  to  verify  their  results;  sub- 
sequently, MM.  Orfila,  Robin,  and  Berard  repeated  the  ex- 
periments of  feeding  dogs  on  charcoal  for  several  days,  and 
then  killing  them  by  hanging.  By  means  of  a  microscope 
of  450  power,  they  were  able  to  discover  molecules  of  the 
charcoal  in  the  blood  of  the  liver  and  of  the  lungs,  in  that  of 
the  left  auricle,  and  in  a  mesenteric  gland;  but  r\ot  in  the 
blood  of  the  vena  portfe,  nor  in  the  ch}'le.  In  a  subsequent 
experiment  with  lampblack,  performed  in  the  same  manner, 
they  were  unable  to  discover  the  slightest  trace  of  the  carbon 
in  any  part  of  the  animal's  body.  Orfila's  conclusion  was 
that  when  particles  of  charcoal  passed  into  the  blood  from 
the  stomach,  it  was  owing  to  the  fact  of  their  being  "  exceed- 
ingly sharp-pointed  and  angular  (as  is  the  case  in  the  charcoal 
of  wood,  but  not  in  lampblack),  by  which  means  they  forced 


24  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

a  passage  through  the  delicate  capillaries."  (Toxicologie,  1852, 
i.  p.  25.) 

(2)  Nature  of  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied. — The  rapidity 
of  the  poisonous  impression  is  in  direct  ratio  with  the  ab- 
sorbing power  of  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied ;  and  this  is 
chiefly  dependent  on  its  supply  of  blood,  or  its  vascularity : 
this  is  easily  understood.  Hence,  when  directly  introduced 
into  the  circulation,  by  injection  into  a  vein,  the  impression 
is  the  speediest  of  all.  Sir  R.  Christison  found  that  when 
the  muriate  of  conia  was  injected  into  the  femoral  vein  of  a 
dog,  he  was  unable,  with  his  watch  in  his  hand,  to  notice 
any  appreciable  interval  between  the  moment  at  which  it  was 
injected  and  that  at  which  the  animal  died;  certainly  the 
interval  did  not  exceed  three  or  four  seconds.  (On  Poisons, 
p.  8.)  Other  poisons  injected  in  the  same  manner  will  act 
with  equal  celerity.  Next  in  order  comes  inhalation,  in  the 
form  of  vapor,  into  the  lungs.  From  the  extreme  vascularity 
of  the  pulmonary  air-cells,  a  vapor-substance  introduced  into 
these  immediately  finds  its  way  into  the  circulation.  Next, 
the  cellular  or  areolar  tissue  affords  a  very  speedy  mode  of 
introducing  a  poison  by  hypodermic  injection.  The  serous 
membranes  come  next  in  order;  then  the  stomach  and 
bowels;  and  last  of  all,  the  sound  skin. 

In  certain  instances,  a  poison  introduced  into  the  rectum 
acts  more  promptly  than  when  taken  into  the  stomach,  al- 
though these  cases  are  exceptions.  This  is  asserted  to  be 
true  of  arsenic,  corrosive  sublimate,  strychnia,  and  the  prep- 
arations of  opium. 

In  regard  to  some  of  the  animal  poisons,  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach  appears  to  exercise  a  remarkable 
modifying  influence  over  them,  inasmuch  as  they  may  be 
swallowed  with  impunity  even  in  large  doses,  while  the 
smallest  fragment  of  them  introduced  beneath  the  skin  of 
the  same  individual  produces  rapidly  fatal  results.  Notable 
illustrations  of  this  fact  are  furnished  in  the  case  of  the 
virus  of  poisonous  snakes  and  of  the  mad  dog,  and  that  of 
glanders.  Other  animal  viruses,  such  as  the  matter  of  va- 
riola and  syphilis,  are  likewise  innocuous  when  swallowed, 
but  produce,  as  is  well  known,  their  specific  effects  very 


ABSORPTION   OF   POISONS.  25 

speedily  when  inoculated  beneath  the  skin.  This  is  also 
true  of  the  woorara  poison. 

The  absorption  by  the  stomach  is  modified  by  the  full  or 
empty  condition  of  that  organ, — being  most  rapid  when  the 
stomach  is  empty.,  It  is  doubtless  for  this  reason,  that  persons 
frequently  escape  death  after  swallowing  large  doses  of  a 
poison  on  a  full  stomach. 

The  sound  skin  may,  in  some  cases,  become  the  avenue  for 
the  introduction  of  poisons  by  absorption,  as  seen  in  the  cases 
of  arsenic,  corrosive  sublimate,  sugar  of  lead,  opium,  and 
many  other  substances  which  have  occasioned  serious  and 
even  fatal  consequences  when  thus  applied.  Moreover,  after 
death  they  have  been  detected  in  the  tissues  of  the  body — 
showing  that  they  had  been  absorbed.  When  the  cuticle  is 
removed  and  the  poison  is  applied  directly  to  the  true  skin 
(endermically),  absorption  is  much  more  rapid.  Hence  an 
ulcer,  or  a  wound,  is  a  ready  medium  for  the  absorption  of 
poisons. 

(3)  Fullness  of  the  blood-vessels. — The  rapidity  of  absorption 
is  always  inversely  to  the  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid. 
The  fullness  of  the  blood-vessels  opposes  a  mechanical  ob- 
stacle to  the  entrance  of  any  other  fluid.  Hence  depletion 
of  the  vessels  by  bleeding  or  purging  will  favor  absorption. 
For  this  reason,  in  a  case  of  poisoning,  it  is  generally  con- 
sidered injudicious  to  bleed  the  patient, — the  loss  of  blood 
increasing  the  further  absorption  of  the  poison  from  the 
stomach  into  the  general  circulation. 

But  admitting  the  fact  of  absorption,  the  question  arises, — 
Is  the  fatal  effect  of  the  poison  to  be  ascribed  to  this  ?  This 
question  must  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  if  it  can  be 
shown,  on  the  one  hand,  that  poisons  continue  to  act  so  long 
as  the  blood  passes  freely  from  the  point  of  insertion  to  the 
tissues  or  organs  affected,  and  that,  on  the  other,  their  action 
is  stopped  or  postponed  when  the  circulation  is  arrested. 

The  oft-mentioned  experiment  of  Magendie  establishes  the 
first  of  these  propositions.  He  divided  the  leg  of  a  frog  from 
the  body,  and  established  a  connection  between  the  separated 
parts  by  means  of  quills  inserted  into  the  large  vessels.  Nux 
vomica  was  then  applied  to  the  foot,  when  absorption  took 


26  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

place,  and  death  resulted  with  the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
that  poison. 

The  second  proposition  is  proved  both  by  the  foregoing 
experiment,  and  by  one  of  Mr.  Blake's :  Prussic  acid  was 
introduced  into  the  stomach  of  a  dog,  through  an  open- 
ing in  its  walls.  No  poisonous  effect  was  produced  so  long 
as  the  vessels  passing  from  the  stomach  to  the  liver  were 
secured  by  a  ligature  ;  but  it  began  to  act  within  one  minute 
of  its  removal  (Ed.  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  Jan.,  1840). 

The  rapidity  of  the  absorption  is  remarkable.  As  the  result 
of  numerous  experiments  upon  animals,  it  has  been  proved 
that  a  poison  injected  into  the  cellular  tissue  will  be  diffused 
throughout  the  whole  circulation  in  a  few  seconds,  and  a 
solution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  water  injected  into  the 
rectum  of  a  dog,  passed  through  the  circulation  and  was 
eliminated  by  the  lungs  in  sixty-five  seconds  (Bernard,  Le- 
90113,  p.  59).  The  rapidity  with  which  absorption  goes  on 
will,  as  before  remarked,  satisfactorily  account  for  the  mode 
of  action  of  even  the  most  promptly  fatal  poisons,  without 
the  necessity  of  resorting  to  any  other  theory  to  explain  it. 

Subsequent  disposition  of  the  Poison. — After  the  poison  has 
entered  the  circulation,  it  may  either  be  rapidly  eliminated 
by  the  different  emunctories,  especially  by  the  kidney,  or  it 
may  be  temporarily  deposited  in  the  organs  and  tissues  of 
the  body,  and  usually  in  the  following  order  as  to  quantity : 
the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  heart,  lungs,  brain,  and  pancreas. 
Experiment  has  shown  that  only  a  minute  quantity  of  the 
poison  is  circulating  in  the  blood  at  any  one  time;  the  effort 
of  the  system  evidently  being  to  get  rid  of  it  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  Moreover,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
poison  is  active  only  while  circulating  in  the  capillary  blood- 
vessels:  while  still  in  the  stomach,  or  after  separation  from 
the  blood  by  the  emunctories,  or  when  deposited  in  the  solid 
tissues,  it  is  believed  to  be  entirely  harmless.  It  is  a  very 
common  mistake  to  suppose  that  in  a  fatal  case,  death  is 
caused  by  the  very  poison  discovered  in  the  stomach;  whereas 
this  has  no  actual  connection  with  the  fatal  result, — the  death 
being,  in  point  of  fact,  attributable  to  the  absorbed  portion 
only  (except  in  the  case  of  the  corrosives).  The  quantity 


ABSORPTION   AND   ELIMINATION   OF   POISONS.  27 

remaining  in  the  stomach  after  death  is  merely  the  comple- 
ment of  the  fatal  portion, — the  surplus  of  what  was  necessary 
to  kill.  The  same  is  true  of  that  portion  of  the  poison  which 
has  been  deposited  in  the  liver  and  other  organs  of  the  body : 
it  has  been  removed,  for  the  time  being,  out  of  the  sphere 
of  noxious  power.  But  although  harmless  so  long  as  retained 
in  this  situation,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  poison 
is  liable  to  be  reabsorbed  into  the  circulation,  when  it  will 
again  become  active.  We  have  no  proof  that  all  poisons  are 
deposited  in  the  organs:  while  the  fact  is  true  generally  of 
metallic  poisons,  and  of  some  of  the  organic  poisons  (alkaloids), 
it  has  not  yet  been  fully  demonstrated  in  the  case  of  all.  The 
gaseous  poisons,  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  appear  to  be  im- 
mediately eliminated  by  the  lungs  without  being  deposited 
in  the  organs.  The  experiment  of  Bernard,  quoted  above 
(p.  26),  proves  this  assertion.  Another  experiment  of  his  still 
further  establishes  it:  he  injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of  a 
dog  one-quarter  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  saturated  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  the  vein  being  secured  above  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  blood,  and  the  liquid  being  gently  propelled 
towards  the  heart.  A  piece  of  paper  wetted  with  acetate  of 
lead  solution  was  held  to  the  dog's  mouth ;  it  was  blackened 
in  from  three  to  five  seconds,  showing  that  the  gas  had  been 
eliminated  from  the  lungs.  This  elimination  was  completed 
in  a  few  seconds  (Lemons,  p.  59). 

The  period  when  an  absorbed  poison  begins  to  be  removed 
from  the  circulation,  either  by  elimination,  or  by  deposition 
in  the  organs,  varies  for  different  substances,  and  probably 
also  for  different  states  of  the  system^  for  different  ages,  and 
even  for,  the  different  sexes.  As  regards  medicinal  sub- 
stances, it  is  well  known  that  they  appear  in  the  urine  in  a 
very  short  time  after  being  swallowed, — e.g.  iodide  of  potas- 
sium in  ten  minutes,  and  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  in  from 
one  to  thirty-nine  minutes  (Erichsen,  Med.  Gaz.,  xxxvi.  p. 
363).  It  has  also  been  found  that  the  rate  of  elimination, 
like  that  of  absorption,  is  by  no  means  uniform.  In  relation 
to  the  mineral  poisons,  experiments  on  animals  show  that 
arsenic  may  be  diffused  throughout  the  body  in  one  hour  and 
a  half  after  being  introduced.  In  an  experiment  by  Orfila, 


28  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

three  grains  of  solid  arsenic  were  applied  to  the  cellular  tis- 
sue of  the  back  of  a  dog;  the  animal  vomited  in  half  an  hour, 
and  died  in  four  hours.  Arsenic  was  found,  on  examination, 
in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  lungs,  heart,  brains,  alimentary 
canal,  and  muscles  (Toxicologie,  1852,  i.  pp.  381,  383).  This 
same  poison  has  been  found  in  the  urine  of  a  horse  within 
an  hour  after  administration. 

Dr.  Taylor  has  found  arsenic  in  the  human  liver  in  so  short 
a  period  as  four  hours,  and  in  another  case,  in  six  hours,  after 
being  swallowed,  —  the  cases  having  proved  fatal  in  these 
periods.  He  thinks  that  the  liver  acquires  its  maximum  sat- 
uration in  about  fifteen  hours.  He  gives  a  table  of  an  estimate 
of  the  average  amount  of  araenic  that  will  be  found  in  the 
human  liver  at  different  periods  of  the  examination,  as  fol- 
lows :  In  5|  to  7  hours  after  taking,  the  quantity  found  is 
0.8  grain  ;  in  8f  hours,  the  quantity  is  1.2  grs. ;  in  15  hours, 
the  quantity  is  2.0  grs. ;  in  17  to  20  hours,  the  quantity  is 
1.3  grs. ;  in  14  days,  the  quantity  is  0.17  gr.  (On  Poisons, 
1859,  p.  116).  Ortila's  opinion  was  that  arsenic  is  entirely 
eliminated  from  the  human  system  in  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
days.  Dr.  Maclagan  treated  a  case  which  recovered  from  a 
large  dose  of  arsenic.  The  poison  was  detected  in  the  urine 
from  the  second  to  the  twenty-fifth  day,  when  it  entirely  dis- 
appeared (Ed.  Month.  Jour.,  1852,  p.  131).  The  case  of  Dr. 
Alexander,  who  lived  for  sixteen  days  after  taking,  unknow- 
ingly, a  large  dose  of  arsenic,  confirms  Orfila's  opinion  in 
relation  to  the  period  required  for  its  total  elimination  from 
the  human  body.  In  this  case,  a  careful  examination  after 
death  failed  to  detect  the  slightest  trace  of  the' poison, — 
showing  that  it  had  in  sixteen  days  entirely  disappeared  by 
elimination. 

The  experiments  of  M.  L.  Orfila  have  given  us  the  fullest 
information  upon  this  subject.  From  these  it  would  appear 
that  for  arsenic  and  corrosive  sublimate,  thirty  days  are 
required  for  complete  elimination ;  for  tartar  emetic,  four 
months;  for  nitrate  of  silver,  five  months;  for  acetate  of 
lead  and  sulphate  of  copper,  over  eight  months  (Tardieu  sur 
rEmpoisonnement,  p.  19). 

The  question  of  the  elimination  of  poisons  may  assume  a 


ELIMINATION    OF    POISONS.  29 

serious  importance  in  a  medico-legal  case,  as  when  there  is 
a  failure  to  discover  the  poison  after  death  in  a  person  who 
has  died  within  a  few  days  after  the  alleged  administration 
of  arsenic,  and  after  exhibiting  symptoms  consistent  with 
this  poison.  Here,  the  defense  would  strongly  insist  that  if 
the  poison  had  really  been  taken,  it  could  not  be  entirely 
eliminated  from  all  the  organs  of  the  body  in  two  or  three 
days,  and  therefore  the  failure  to  detect  it  in  the  absorbed  state 
was  a  proof  of  its  non-administration.  Dr.  Taylor  alludes  to 
a  case  which  he  examined,  where  arsenic  had  caused  death 
in  twenty-six  hours;  the  poison  had  nearly  disappeared  from 
those  parts  of  the  body  where  it  is  usually  found.  There  had 
been  much  vomiting  and  purgiitg  previously.  Hence  it  would 
not  be  safe,  in  trials,  to  push  the  above  rule  in  relation  to 
the  period  of  elimination,  too  far. 

In  the  case  of  a  person  who  had  been  taking  arsenic  in 
small  doses,  medicinally,  for  some  weeks  or  months  before 
death,  and  who  had  died  suddenly  under  suspicious  circum- 
stances, the  chemical  examination  might  reveal  the  presence 
of  the  poison  in  the  liver.  This  fact  would,  probably  be 
regarded  as  positive  proof  of  criminal  administration,  es- 
pecially if  it  could  be  shown  that  the  deceased  had  not  taken 
the  medicine  for  upwards  of  fifteen  days  before  death ;  and 
consequently,  that  the  poison  found  in  the  liver  could  not  be 
ascribed  to  the  arsenic  which  he  had  taken  medicinally. 
We  think  it  would  be  very  unsafe  to  admit  this  plea,  under 
the  existing  circumstances,  since  it  is  quite  possible  that  the 
elimination  in  this  case  might  not  have  been  so  rapid  as 
is  usual ;  and  again,  because  we  have  positive  proof  that 
arsenic  has  been  detected  in  the  urine  of  a  person  as  late 
as  the  twenty-fourth  day  after  it  ceased  to  be  administered. 
If,  however,  in  the  above  case,  free  arsenic  had  been  dis- 
covered in  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  especially  in  any 
notable  amount,  then  there  could  be  little  doubt  of  the  fact 
of  poisoning.  Yet  even  in  such  a  case  it  would  not  amount 
to  positive  proof,  as  will  be  seen  on  further  consideration.  (See 
post.) 

The  case  may  be  presented  under  a  different  phase — as 
where  the  criminality  of  the  accused  is  made  to  depend  upon 

3 


30  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

fixing  the  time  required  for  depositing  a  certain  amount  of 
arsenic  found  in  the  liver  of  the  deceased. 

Thus,  in  a  certain  case  reported  by  Dr.  Taylor  (op.  tit.,  p. 
53),  a  woman  was  accused  of  killing  her  husband  with 
arsenic.  The  duration  of  his  illness  was  about  seventeen 
hours ;  and  the  question  was  whether  he  had  taken  the  poison 
by  mistake  in  the  morning,  or  whether  his  wife  had  given  it 
to  him  later  in  the  day.  Dr.  Letheby  stated,  in  evidence, 
that  he  had  discovered  eight  and  a  half  grains  of  arsenic  in 
the  stomach,  and  two  grains  (estimated)  in  the  liver;  and  he 
gave  as  his  opinion  that  the  poison  could  not  have  been 
taken  more  than  two  or  three  hours  before  death, — based  upon 
the  quantity  thus  discovered.  The  prisoner  was  convicted 
and  sentenced  to  death ;  but  a  timely  interference  by  distin- 
guished experts  satisfied  the  authorities  that  an  error  had 
been  committed,  and  that  the  inference  of  Dr.  Letheby  as 
to  the  time  of  the  administration  was  unwarrantable.  It  will 
be  recollected  that  the  average  time  of  maximum  saturation 
of  the  liver  (about  two  grains)  is  stated  to  be  fifteen  hours. 
(See  p.  28.) 

In  a  French  case  reported  in  "Ann.  d'Hyg.  et  de  Med. 
Leg.,"  1846,  p.  149,  the  conclusion  arrived  at  was  directly 
the  opposite  of  the  one  just  mentioned,  viz.,  that  arsenic 
had  been  taken  only  a  few  hours  before  death,  because  the 
liver  contained  no  trace  of  the  poison  I  This  was  much  more 
in  accordance  with  experience. 

The  question  of  elimination  of  poisons  will  be  again  referred 
to  when  treating  of  the  individual  poisons. 

Cause  of  Death. — The  next  question  to  determine  is — After 
the  poison  has  reached  the  different  parts  of  the  body  by 
means  of  the  circulation,  how  does  it  produce  its  peculiar 
effects?  How  does  it  destroy  life?  Much  of  our  knowl- 
edge upon  this  point  is  still  speculative;  nevertheless,  ex- 
periments on  the  lower  animals,  conducted  with  proper 
caution,  have  led  to  some  definite  results.  In  all  cases  of 
acute  poisoning,  where  the  symptoms  run  their  course 
rapidly,  life  is  destroyed  through  an  impression  either  upon 
the  h*mrt,  the  lungs,  the  brain,  or  the  spinal  marrow ;  but 
why  the  poison  acts  upon  one  of  these  great  centres  in  pref- 


HOW    DO    POISONS    CAUSE   DEATH  ?  31 

erence  to  another  is  a  question  that  brings  us  to  one  of 
the  "  ultimate  facts"  of  science,  beyond  which  we  cannot 
advance.  To  say  that  the  poison  (and  the  same  is  true  of 
medicines)  has  an  affinity  for  this  or  that  particular  organ 
or  tissue,  is  evidently  no  explanation  of  the  action.  All  we 
can  know  is  the  simple  fact,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
the  action  takes  place.  But  it  is  an  important  point  to  be 
able  to  determine  these  conditions  and  the  circumstances 
attending  them.  To  some  of  these  we  shall  now  give  atten- 
tion. 

We  start  with  the  admitted  fact  that  poisons  enter  the 
circulation,  and  are  thus  carried  to  the  different  organs  of 
the  body,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  are  differently  affected  by 
them.  Some,  carried  to  the  heart  by  the  coronary  arteries, 
paralyze  that  organ ;  others  act  directly  on  the  lungs,  caus- 
ing suffocation  by  arresting  the  capillary  circulation ;  a  third 
class  attack  the  brain,  producing  fatal  coma;  a  fourth  im- 
press the  spinal  marrow,  exciting  fatal  tetanic  spasms  in  the 
respiratory  muscles ;  and  a  fifth  appear  to  affect  the  entire 
capillary  circulation.  (Guy's  Forensic  Medicine,  1868,  p. 
337.)  The  knowledge  of  the  above  facts  is  derived  chiefly 
from  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Blake  and  of  Claude  Bernard 
(Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  1860).  Moreover,  in  some  cases 
the  same  poison  will  affect  different  organs  according  to  the 
dose,  and  probably  also  according  to  the  constitution  of  the 
poisoned  subject.  Thus,  arsenic,  while  ordinarily  spending 
its  power  upon  the  stomach  and  bowels,  will  sometimes  affect 
the  heart — as  indicated  by  syncope;  sometimes  the  brain — 
as  shown  by  coma;  and  sometimes  the  spinal  marrow — as 
seen  by  the  tetanic  convulsions,  numbness,  and  paralysis 
that  are  occasionally  manifested.  The  same  is  true  to  a 
certain  extent  of  oxalic  acid,  antimony,  and  some  other  sub- 
stances. 

One  mode  in  which  death  occurs  by  poisoning  is  undoubt- 
edly by  shock  on  the  general  nervous  system.  In  this  way 
the  active  corrosives  most  probably  prove  fatal — their  power- 
ful local  action  causing  a  general  depression  of  the  system, 
similar  to  that  occasioned  by  any  severe  injury.  The  nature 
of  this  fatal  shock  cannot  be  determined  by  any  means  at 


32  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

present  at  our  command.  As  in  sudden  death  from  concus- 
sion of  the  brain, 'there  may  be  no  external  injury,  nor  any 
perceptible  internal  lesion,  to  reveal  to  us  the  actual  cause 
of  dissolution  ;  although  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  is  due 
to  some  molecular  disturbance  of  the  great  nerve-centre. 

The  fact  that  most  poisons  enter  the  circulation  before 
reaching  distant  organs,  naturally  suggests  the  hypothesis 
that  they  first  produce  some  alteration  in  the  character  of 
the  blood — chemical  or  physical, — the  poison  itself  also  un- 
dergoing change  at  the  same  time.  Thus,  certain  substances 
are  supposed  to  remove  oxygen  from  the  blood,  in  their 
transit  through  the  circulation,  such  as  phosphorus  and 
arsenic  when  associated  with  hydrogen,  oxalic  acid,  alcohol, 
chloroform,  prussic  acid,  benzoic  acid,  hydrate  of  chloral, 
etc.  Chloroform,  for  example,  when  swallowed,  passes  into 
the  circulation,  but  is  obtained  from  the  blood  by  distillation, 
as  formic  acid, — its  three  atoms  of  chlorine  having  been 
replaced  by  three  atoms  of  oxygen.  There  is  no  question 
that  many  medicinal  substances  do  undergo  a  chemical 
change  in  passing  through  the  route  of  the  circulation  ;  but 
whether  this  change  is  effected  at  the  expense  of  the  blood 
is  not  so  clearly  proved.  The  salts  of  the  vegetable  acids 
(acetates,  tartrates,  citrates,  etc.)  are  eliminated  in  the  urine 
as  carbonates,  affording  undoubted  evidence  of  a  chemical 
transformation,  and  that  probably  while  in  contact  with  the 
blood.  That  decided  chemical  changes  may  take  place  in 
the  blood,  and  prove  fatal  by  the  production  of  poisons  from 
inert  substances,  is  proved  by  the  following  experiment  of 
Bernard.  The  emulsine  of  sweet  almonds  and  the  amygda- 
line  of  bitter  almonds,  both  inert  substances,  when  mixed 
together  in  contact  with  water,  react  upon  each  other  so  as 
to  produce  prussic  acid.  Bernard  injected  fifteen  grains  of 
amygdaline  dissolved  in  water  into  the  jugular  vein  of  a 
rabbit;  no  injurious  eftects  resulted.  The  experiment  was 
then  tried  with  a  solution  of  emulsine,  with  negative  results. 
But  when  the  one  solution  was  injected  into  the  vein  soon 
after  the  other,  the  animal  died  from  poisoning  with  prussic 
acid, — this  substance  having  been  formed  in  the  blood.  In 
this  way  it  is  supposed  that  miasmata  and  other  noxious 


CIRCUMSTANCES    WHICH    MODIFY   THE    ACTION    OF    POISONS.       33 

causes  of  disease  may  operate,  by  getting  into  the  circulation, 
after  being  inhaled  into  the  lungs ;  and  when  in  the  blood, 
generating  the  poison  which  proves  so  detrimental  to  life. 
Bernard  ascribes  these  changes  to  a  species  of  fermentation 
(Le9ons,  p.  96). 

Liebig's  theory  (at  least  with  respect  to  the  action  of  the 
poisonous  alkaloids)  was  that  they  entered  into  chemical 
combination  with  the  nerve-substance, — morphia  with  brain- 
substance,  for  instance, — and  thus  the  quality  of  the  nervous 
matter  being  altered,  it  became  unfitted  to  support  life. 
Another  theory  is  that  poisons  act  by  destroying  the  vitality 
of  the  blood.  But,  as  is  justly  remarked  by  Prof.  Taylor, 
this  destruction  of  the  vital  properties  of  the  blood  does  not 
explain  the  specific  differences  of  poisons,  seeing  they  do  not 
all  act  alike. 

.  As  regards  any  actual  alteration  in  the  blood  itself,  —  either 
chemical  or  physical,  —  nothing  has  been  yet  satisfactorily 
demonstrated,  except  occasional  changes  in  its  color,  consist- 
ence, and  coagulability.  Microscopic  observation  has  failed 
to  show  any  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  the  blood-cor- 
puscles that  can  be  regarded  as  conclusive. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CIRCUMSTANCES   WHICH    MODIFY   THE   ACTION   OF   POISONS. 

THESE  may  be  considered  under  the  three  heads  of — (1) 
such  as  relate  to  the  poison  itself;  (2)  such  as  are  connected 
with  the  part  to  which  they  are  applied ;  and  (3)  those  which 
depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  body. 

1.  Among  the  modifying  causes  connected  with  the  poison 
itself,  the  quantity  and  form  alone  require  a  brief  notice.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  larger  the  amount  of  a  poison,  the  more 
rapid  and  powerful  are  its  effects.  But  there  are  certain 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  When  a  very  large  dose  of  an  irritant 
poison  is  swallowed,  it  may  be  so  promptly  and  completely 


34  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

rejected  by  vomiting,  as  to  prevent  its  fatal  action,  whereas 
a  smaller  dose  would  have  been  retained.  Again,  it  would 
appear  from  experiments,  that  certain  substances,  when  swal- 
lowed in  large  doses,  seem  to  produce  a  local  impression  on 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  that 
interferes  materially  with  the  power  of  absorption,  and  con- 
sequently the  impression  upon  the  system  must  be  modified. 
The  effects  of  some  poisons  are  materially  modified  by  the 
size  of  their  dose  :  thus,  a  very  large  dose  of  oxalic  acid  will 
kill  almost  instantly  by  shock ;  in  a  smaller  dose,  it  may  still 
prove  fatal  by  its  action  on  the  heart;  and  in  yet  smaller 
doses,  it  affects  chiefly  the  spinal  cord  and  the  brain.  In 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  mineral  poisons,  small  and  repeated 
doses  will  develop  symptoms  very  different  from  those  pro- 
duced by  a  single  large  dose. 

In  relation  to  the/orwi  in  which  a  poison  is  administered, 
we  have  already  (p.  23)  considered  the  influence  of  solubility 
in  promoting  absorption,  and  thereby  increasing  the  activity 
of  the  poison.  The  only  other  point  under  this  head  demand- 
ing notice  is  the  effect  of  combination  or  mixture.  As  is  well 
known,  two  powerful  poisons  may  chemically  neutralize  each 
other  more  or  less  completely,  as  e.g.  the  mineral  acids  and 
alkalies.  Powerful  acid  poisons  in  combining  with  bases,  or 
powerful  basic  poisons  in  uniting  with  acids,  produce  com- 
pounds which,  if  soluble,  retain  the  characters  of  the  more 
active  ingredient:  thus,  the  soluble  salts  of  oxalic  acid  par- 
take of  the  properties  of  that  acid;  and  the  different  soluble 
salts  of  morphia  exhibit  the  peculiar  effects  of  this  alkaloid. 
In  some  instances,  the  chemical  combination  of  two  active 
poisons  gives  rise  to  the  mixed  effects  of  the  two,  as  in  the 
union  of  hydrocyanic  acid  and  mercury.  The  great  object 
in  the  use  of  antidotes,  in  the  treatment  of  poisons,  is  to  con- 
vert the  active  noxious  substance,  by  means  of  a  chemical 
combination,  into  an  insoluble,  inert  one. 

The  effect  of  mixture  upon  poisons  is  sometimes  to  increase, 
and  at  other  times  to  diminish,  their  power.  Thus,  acids  in- 
crease the  activity  of  opium,  and  of  the  alkaloids  generally; 
oily,  mucilaginous,  and  albuminous  substances  retard  the 
activity  of  poisons,  chiefly  by  their  mechanical  influence, 


CIRCUMSTANCES    WHICH    MODIFY   THE    ACTION    OF    POISONS.       35 

protecting  the  coats  of  the  stomach  and  enveloping  the 
poison,  if  in  the  solid  state.  Hence  the  advantage  of  the 
free  use  of  such  substances  in  the  treatment  of  irritant 
poisoning.  The  subject  of  compound  poisons,  or  the  antagonism 
of  poisons,  will  be  discussed  hereafter. 

2.  The  modifying  influence  caused  by  the  part  to  which  the 
poison  is  applied. — As  this   is   dependent   simply  upon   the 
relative  absorbing  power  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  what  has  already  been  said  upon  that 
subject  (see  ante,  p.  24). 

3.  The  influence  exerted  by  the  condition  of  the  body  itself. — 
The  conditions  of  the  body  that  influence  the  activity  of  a 
poison  are  Habit,  Idiosjmcrasy,  Disease,  and  Tolerance. 

(1)  Influence  of  Habit. — It  is  well  known  that  the  effect  of 
habit  is  to  diminish  the  po\yer  of  certain  poisons.  Daily 
experience  demonstrates  this  in  the  case  of  opium,  tobacco, 
and  alcohol.  It  is  true  of  narcotics  especially,  that  the  sys- 
tem soon  becomes  accustomed  to  their  effects,  and  that  it  is 
necessary  gradually  to  increase  their  dose,  in  order  to  keep 
up  the  desired  impression.  The  confirmed  opium-eater,  for 
example,  will  take  with  impunity  a  quantity  of  the  drug  ten 
or  twenty  times  greater  than  he  could  have  ventured  upon  at 
the  beginning  without  a  fatal  result.  It  should  not  be  for- 
gotten, however,  that  these  poisons  to  which  the  system 
seems  so  easily  to  adapt  itself,  produce  permanently  injurious 
impressions.  This  is  notoriously  true  of  both  alcohol  and 
opium ;  also  of  tobacco,  though  in  a  less  degree.  It  would 
appear  that  the  influence  of  habit  is  not  equally  exerted  upon 
mineral  poisons.  "We  rarely  hear  of  persons  becoming  habit- 
uated to  these  enormous  doses  of  corrosive  sublimate,  arsenic, 
or  tartar  emetic, — we  mean  in  the  ordinary  state  of  the  health. 

An  apparent  exception  to  this  remark  is  afforded  in  the 
case  of  the  arsenic-eaters  of  Styria.  There  seems  to  be  well- 
grounded  authority  for  believing  that  the  Styrian  peasants 
have,  from  early  practice,  acquired  the  habit  of  swallowing 
as  much  as  from  three  to  five  grains  of  arsenious  acid  (white 
arsenic)  at  a  single  dose,  and  repeating  this  practice  twice  a 
week  with  perfect  apparent  impunity  (vide  Dr.  Roscoe's  paper, 
read  to  the  Manchester  Philosophical  Society,  Oct.  30,  1860  ; 


36  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

also  Dr.  Maclagan's  observations  in  Chem.  News,  Lond., 
July,  1865).  It  is  said  that  this  practice  of  arsenic-eating  is 
resorted  to  by  the  men  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their 
physical  endurance,  enabling  them  the  better  to  make 
fatiguing  marches  up  the  mountains,  and  by  the  women  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  the  complexion.  It  is  proper 
to  observe  that  medical  experience  does  not  confirm  these 
results  in  ordinary  practice. 

The  subject  may  occasionally  present  itself  under  a  medico- 
legal  aspect,  as  where  the  attempt  is  made  by  the  defense  in 
a  trial  for  arsenic  poisoning,  to  account  for  its  presence  in 
the  stomach  of  the  deceased  on  the  ground  of  his  having 
been  an  arsenic-eater.  It  need  hardly  be  observed  that  such 
a  defense  must  be  worthless,  if  the  symptoms  of  arsenical 
poisoning  were  present  before  death. 

(2)  Idiosyncrasy. — By  this  is  meant  the  individual   pecu- 
liarities of  persons.    They  are  almost  as  varied  as  the  number 
is  great.     The  effect  of  idiosyncrasy  is  usually  to  render  the 
individual  more  susceptible  to  certain  impressions  than  ordi- 
nary :  thus,  to  some  persons  the  smallest  dose  of  mercury  or 
of  opium  will  act  as  a  violent  poison.     In  the  case  of  others, 
articles  of  food  that  are  generally  perfectly  harmless,  will 
produce  the  symptoms  of  violent  poisoning.     The  instances 
in  which  idiosyncrasy  produces  a  diminished  susceptibility 
to  the  action  of  poisons  are  rare.    An  illustration  is  afforded 
in  the  well-known  case  mentioned  by  Sir  R.  Christison  (On 
Poisons,  p.  32),  where  a  gentleman  unaccustomed  to  the  use 
of  opium  took  nearly  an  ounce  of  laudanum  at  a  single  dose, 
without  any  effect. 

The  subject  of  idiosyncrasy  may  become  of  importance  in 
a  medico-legal  point  of  view,  as  where  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing follow  a  meal  consisting  of  a  particular  kind  of  food.  If 
other  circumstances  should  happen  to  favor  the  suspicion, 
the  most  serious  error  might  be  committed  in  attributing  to 
poison  what  was  really  due  to  another  cause.  (See  post.) 

(3)  Disease.  —  The  effects  of  disease  in  influencing  the  act- 
ivity of  poisons  are  displayed  in  two  opposite  conditions :  it 
sometimes  increases,  and  at  other  times  diminishes,  the  suscep- 
tibilit}'  of  the  system  to  the  impression  of  a  poison.    Instances 


CIRCUMSTANCES   WHICH    MODIFY   THE   ACTION    OF    POISONS.       37 

of  the  former  are  witnessed  in  apoplexy  and  inflammation 
of  the  brain,  causing  a  greater  susceptibility  to  the  action  of 
opium  and  other  narcotics;  also  in  certain  diseased  conditions 
of  the  kidney,  producing  an  increased  susceptibility  to  the 
impression  of  mercury.  As  examples  of  the  latter,  we  may 
cite  the  greatly  diminished  susceptibility  to  the  action  of 
opium  in  tetanus,  mania,  and  delirium  tremeus.  In  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  there  is  an  increased 
susceptibility  to  the  action  of  irritant  poisons.  In  paralysis, 
increased  doses  of  strychnia  are  borne  without  bad  effect. 

A  knowledge  of  the  above  facts  is  important  in  reference 
to  a  charge  of  malapraxis,  where  an  ordinary  dose  of  a  medi- 
cine, e.g.  calomel,  has  produced  a  poisonous  effect  on  the 
system,  through  some  diseased  state  of  its  organs. 

(4)  Tolerance.  —  By  this  is  understood  the  ability  of  the 
system  to  bear  very  large  doses  of  certain  poisonous  sub- 
stances, in  consequence  of  a  morbid  condition  of  the  economy, 
and  altogether  independent  of  habit.  A  good  illustration  is 
afforded  in  the  case  of  tartar  emetic.  In  acute  pneumonia 
and  bronchitis,  and  in  acute  rheumatism,  immense  doses  of 
this  substance  have  been  given,  not  only  without  producing 
its  usual  poisonous  effects,  but  with  a  positive  mitigation  of 
the  disease.  This  practice  originated  with  Tommasini,  Ra- 
sori,  and  Laennec,  and  was  formerly  very  much  in  vogue 
under  the  name  of  the  Italian,  or  contra-stimulant  system. 
The  facts  connected  with  the  tolerance  of  certain  medicines 
in  poisonous  doses  are  of  some  medico-legal  importance, 
where,  for  example,  in  a  case  of  tartar-emetic  poisoning, 
it  might  be  alleged  that  this  substance  is  not  poisonous  be- 
cause it  has  so  frequently  been  used  in  enormous  doses  !  But 
the  important  fact  that  such  quantities  are  tolerated  only  in 
certain  morbid  states  of  the  system,  is  studiously  kept  back. 

The  influence  of  sleep  upon  the  action  of  poisons  may  be 
briefly  noticed  here.  In  this  state  all  the  functions  are  car- 
ried on  with  less  activity,  and  the  system  is  less  alive  to  the 
impression  of  poisons.  Hence  the  action  of  a  poison  taken 
at  night,  just  before  going  to  sleep,  is  very  apt  to  be  retarded 
for  some  hours.  Sir  li.  Christison  alludes  to  this  in  the  case 
of  arsenic ;  and  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  hold 


38  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

good  with  irritant  poisons  generally.  The  artificial  sleep 
produced  by  opium  and  other  narcotics  may  exert  the  same 
retarding  influence:  thus,  according  to  Prof.  Guy,  opium, 
when  given  with  arsenic,  not  only  masks  the  symptoms 
proper  to  that  poison,  but  appears  also  to  retard  its  operation. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

POST-MORTEM    IMBIBITION   OF    POISONS. 

As  being  closely  connected  with  the  subject  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  poisons,  it  will  be  appropriate  here  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion of  imbibition  of  poisons  after  death.  Is  it  possible  for  a  dead 
body  to  imbibe  a  poisonous  substance  from  the  soil  in  which 
it  has  been  interred  ?  and  is  it  possible  that  a  poison  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach  or  the  rectum,  or  by  the  hypodermic 
method,  after  death,  should  pass  through  the  tissues  by  imbi- 
bition into  other  viscera  of  the  body,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  the 
suspicion  of  poisoning,  when  in  reality  the  death  had  resulted 
from  a  different  cause?  These  are  extremely  important  ques- 
tions in  a  medico-legal  point  of  view,  and  they  deserve  to  be 
carefully  studied. 

In  relation  to  the  first  proposition,  whether  a  dead  body 
buried  in  a  grave  can  absorb  any  poisonous  matters  from  the 
soil, — the  question  is  narrowed  down  to  the  case  of  arsenic, 
since  this  is  the  only  poison  about  which  there  is  ever  any  dis- 
pute. It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  arsenic  is  frequently  found 
in  the  soils  of  certain  cemeteries ;  but  it  never  exists  there  in  a 
solubleform,  but  always  in  combination  with  either  iron  or  lime, 
in  an  insoluble  state.  According  to  the  highest  authorities, 

O  O  ' 

it  cannot  be  extracted  from  such  soils  by  even  boiling  water 
alone,  but  it  requires  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  eifect 
its  solution, — consequently  it  is  impossible  that  it  should  be 
capable  of  transudation  from  the  soil  into  a  dead  body. 

The  only  case  that  could  possibly  give  rise  to  a  suspicion 
of  this  sort  is  where  the  body  has  been  buried  in  the  earth 


POST-MORTEM    IMBIBITION   OF    POISONS.  39 

for  so  long  a  period  as  to  have  allowed  the  coffin  to  become 
completely  disintegrated,  *nd  the  putrefied  mass  to  lie  in  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  arsenical  soil,  and  the  mixed  matters 
are  subjected  to  chemical  analysis.  But  the  cases  in  which 
this  plea  has  usually  been  urged  have  been  those  of  com- 
paratively recent  death,  where  there  had  been  no  such  contact 
with  the  soil ;  cases,  moreover,  in  which  the  poison  has  been 
detected  in  the  different  organs  of  the  body — in  their  interior 
as  well  as  on  the  surface, — whereas,  if  by  any  chance  the 
naturally  insoluble  arsenic  could  have  been  made  soluble, 
and  entered  the  body  by  imbibition,  more  of  it  would  have 
been  discovered  on  the  outside  than  in  the  interior,  which 
is  quite  contrary  to  the  facts  of  the  analysis.  Hence  we 
must  conclude  that  the  idea  about  the  imbibition  of  cemetery 
arsenic  is  an  unfounded  one ;  and  wherever  this  poison  is 
discovered  after  death  disseminated  throughout  the  different 
organs  of  the  body,  and  particularly  if  it  can  be  ascertained 
that  the  symptoms  before  death  were  those  of  arsenical 
poisoning,  we  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  had  been 
administered  during  life.  An  experiment  of  Orfila,  quoted 
by  Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  378),  would  seem  to  settle 
this  matter.  He  procured  a  large  quantity  of  earth  from  a 
cemetery  known  to  contain  arsenic,  and  buried  in  it  a  full- 
grown  foetus,  the  liver  of  an  adult,  and  various  portions  of 
dead  human  bodies.  Three  months  afterwards,  these  various 
parts  were  exhumed,  and  found  to  be  in  a  state  of  complete 
putrefaction.  They  were  carefully  examined  for  arsenic  by 
the  usual  processes,  but  not  a  trace  of  the  poison  could  be 
detected.  Hence  it  appears  evident  that  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  the  dead  human  body  does  not 
acquire  an  impregnation  of  arsenic  from  contact  with  ar- 
senical earth. 

The  other  proposition  under  this  head  is,  whether  it  is 
possible  for  a  poison  existing  in  the  stomach  at  the  time 
of  death,  or  introduced  into  it  after  death,  to  be  diffused 
throughout  the  body  by  imbibition,  so  as  to  be  discovered 
in  the  organs  by  chemical  analysis.  In  reply  to  this  we  would 
say  that  if  a  poison  is  discovered  very  shortly  after  death  in 
the  different  organs  of  a  body,  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  it 


40  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

was  deposited  there  during  life,  by  absorption.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  viscera  will  contain  as  much  of  the  poison 
in  their  inteiior  as  on  their  surface, — which  would  not  be  the 
case  if  they  had  derived  it  by  post-mortem  imbibition.  But 
if  the  poison  is  found  in  the  organs  of  a  body  after  many 
years'  interment,  then  the  objection  may  be  very  plausibly 
urged  that  its  presence  in  the  different  viscera  may  be  ascribed 
to  imbibition  from  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

Orfila's  experiments  upon  dead  human  and  animal  bodies 
with  solutions  of  arsenic  clearly  demonstrate  that  such  im- 
bibition does  actually  take  place,  but  that  it  is  only  partial, 
— affecting  mostly  only  those  viscera  that  were  in  immediate 
contiguity  with  the  stomach  (see  Toxicologie,  1852,  i.  p.  63). 
These  facts  are  of  practical  importance  in  relation  to  the 
proper  method  of  preserving  the  viscera,  in  a  case  of  sus- 
pected poisoning:  the  liver  and  other  organs  should  never 
be  put  into  the  same  jar  with  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
since  the  former,  although  entirely  free  from  the  poison, 
might  acquire  it  by  imbibition,  and  give  rise  to  very  erro- 
neous conclusions  as  regards  the  absorption  and  deposition 
of  the  poison  during  life. 

There  is  one  aspect  of  this  question  which, 'though  an 
improbable  one,  is  not  impossible, — viz.,  the  designed  intro- 
duction, after  death,  of  a  poison  in  solution,  either  into  the 
stomach  or  the  rectum,  or  hypodermically  into  the  cellular 
tissue,  with  the  criminal  purpose  of  exciting  a  suspicion  of 
poisoning  against  an  innocent  person.  Some  of  the  highest 
authorities  admit  the  possibility  of  this  occurrence.  Sir  R. 
Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  61)  says:  "Although  I  have  not 
been  able  to  find  any  authentic  instance  of  so  horrible  an  act 
of  ingenuity  having  been  perpetrated,  it  must  nevertheless 
be  allowed  to  be  quite  possible."  Orfila  evidently  contem- 
plated the  possibility  of  such  a  crime,  although  he  admits 
never  to  have  heard  of  its  actual  occurrence  (Toxicologie, 
1852,  i.  p.  61). 

Under  such  circumstances,  we  must  admit  the  fact  of  im- 
bibition or  osmosis,  on  well-known  physical  principles.  In 
a  short  time  the  different  viscera  would  become  more  or  less 
impregnated  with  the  poison,  and  an  analysis  might  detect 


POST-MORTEM    IMBIBITION    OF    POISONS.  41 

it,  even  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  etc. ;  and  such  a  dis- 
covery would  usually  be  regarded  as  satisfactory  proof  that 
the  poison  had  been  administered  during  life.  A  remarkable 
case  of  this  character  occurred  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  in  1871; 
it  is  known  as  the  Buffenbarger  Case.  The  deceased  was  an 
aged  man,  who  had  been  treated  in  his  last  illness  for  phthisis 
pulmonalis;  his  physician  testifying  to  his  having  died  of 
this  disease,  and  to  his  presenting  none  of  the  symptoms  of 
arsenical  poisoning  before  death.  The  body  had  been  interred 
four  years,  during  all  which  interval  no  suspicion  of  foul  play 
appears  to  have  been  entertained.  In  the  mean  time  the 
widow  married  again.  After  this,  for  reasons  not  known  to 
the  author,  the  question  of  poisoning  was  raised,  the  widow 
was  charged  with  the  crime,  and  the  body  was  exhumed  for 
judicial  examination.  The  autopsy  revealed  a  remarkable 
state  of  preservation  of  the  body  :  "  The  walls  of  the  abdo- 
men and  skin  and  the  subcutaneous  tissue  were  all  quite 
firm  and  solid.  The  stomach  was  not  so  well  preserved 
(although  the  organ  was  entire,  and  the  tissue  parchment- 
like);  the  liver  was  much  broken  down."  Arsenic  was 
discovered  both  in  the  stomach  and  liver  by  Prof.  Wormley 
(the  quantity  not  stated). 

The  main  question  was  to  account  for  the  presence  of  the 
poison  in  the  viscera.  The  defense  contended  that  it  had 
been  introduced  after  death  into  the  body,  and  distributed  to 
the  different  organs  by  cadaveric  imbibition.  The  chief  points 
urged  by  the  prosecution  were  the  actual  discovery  of  the 
poison,  and  the  remarkable  state  of  preservation  of  the  body 
after  an  interval  of  four  years. 

In  relation  to  the  latter  fact,  while  the  antiseptic  powers  of 
arsenic  cannot  be  questioned,  it  is  equally  well  established 
that  it  does  not  always  prevent  even  rapid  decomposition  of  a 
body;  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  well-attested  instances  of 
a  remarkable  resistance  to  putrefaction  in  bodies,  without  the 
preserving  influence  of  arsenic.  What  is  the  real  preservative 
influence  in  cases  of  this  character  is  not  fully  known.  The 
conversion  of  the  tissues  into  adipocere  will  sometimes  account 
for  it ;  but  this  peculiar  change  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred 
in  the  present  instance.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  there  is 


42  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

no  mention  of  the  presence  of  any  yellow  sulphide  of  arsenic 
in  the  alimentary  canal  or  elsewhere,  which  would  almost 
certainly  be  the  case  if  the  poison  had  been  taken  during 
life.  Every  toxicologist  is  aware  of  this  transformation  oc- 
curring after  burial,  through  the  agency  of  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  of  decomposition  ;  and  the  longer  the  interval  after 
death,  the  more  likely  will  it  be  to  take  place.  Again,  the 
broken-down  or  pulpy  condition  of  the  liver  is  rather  adverse 
to  the  theory  of  ante-mortem  poisoning.  Arsenic  seems,  as 
it  were,  to  have  a  special  affinity  for  this  organ  ;  more  of  the 
absorbed  poison  is  found  in  the  liver  than  in  any  other  organ 
of  the  body.  In  our  own  experience,  this  organ  is  always 
firm  and  well  preserved  by  the  absorbed  arsenic,  even  years 
after  death. 

We  are  not  in  possession  of  all  the  circumstances  con- 
nected with  this  singular  case ;  although  we  have  reason  to 
believe  that  the  opinion  of  those  most  conversant  with  the 
particulars  was  that  the  poison  had  been  designedly  intro- 
duced into  the  body  after  death,  and  not  very  long  before 
the  trial,  with  the  view  of  creating  the  impression  that  the 
man  had  been  poisoned  by  his  wife.  A  very  significant  fact 
is  the  circumstance  that  the  case  had  only  a  preliminary 
hearing,  after  which  it  was  abandoned  by  the  prosecution. 
As  this  is  the  first  case  of  the  kind  recorded,  we  regard  it  as 
of  considerable  importance  as  a  leading  one  in  this  particular 
line. 

Orfila  lays  down  the  following  rules  (among  others),  as 
aiding  us  in  the  diagnosis  of  such  cases: — 1.  "  When  irritating 
and  corrosive  substances  in  the  solid  state  are  introduced  into 
the  body  after  death,  there  always  remains  a  very  consider- 
able quantity  close  to  the  spot  to  which  they  were  applied, 
and  none  is  found  in  the  alimentary  canal  at  any  distance 
from  this  point.  This  is  especially  the  case  if  no  great 
interval  of  time  has  elapsed,  and  if  the  substance  has  not 
been  dissolved  in  the  contained  liquids.  On  the  contrary,  in 
cases  where  the  poison  has  been  administered  during  life, 
only  a  little  is  found  after  death,  because  the  most  of  it  has 
been  expelled  by  vomiting  and  purging."  In  relation  to  the 
application  of  this  rule,  we  would  observe  that,  while  it  is 


POST-MORTEM    IMBIBITION    OF    POISONS.  43 

true  in  general,  it  does  not  meet  the  exceptional  cases  (quite 
numerous)  where  very  large  quantities  of  an  irritant  poison 
(arsenic)  have  been  found  in  the  stomach,  where  the  death  is 
known  to  have  resulted  from  poisoning.  It  is  well  l^nown 
that  in  some  anomalous  cases  of  fatal  arsenical  poisoning, 
there  has  been  neither  vomiting  nor  purging;  and  no  evi- 
dence of  irritation  or  inflammation  of  the  alimentary  canal 
discovered  after  death.  Such  cases,  according  to  this  rule, 
might  be  mistaken  for  those  of  post-mortem  introduction. 

2.  "When  the  poison  has  been  applied  after  death,  the 
alteration  of  the  tissues  never  extends  but  a  small  distance 
beyond  the  point  to  which  the  application  was  made,  so  that 
a  well-defined  line  of  demarkation  is  noticed  between  the  healthy 
and  the  diseased  tissue, — a  phenomenon  never  observed  in 
other  cases.     The  irritation  and  inflammation  resulting  from 
irritant  poisons  administered  during  life,  although  varying 
in  intensity,  always  extend  beyond   the   point  of  contact, 
insensibly  decreasing  the  farther  we  advance,  and  never  ex- 
hibiting a  well-defined  line  of  demarkation." 

3.  "  The  redness, inflammation,  ulceration,  and  other  lesions 
are  much  more  decided  in  cases  where  the  poison  has  been 
taken  during  life  :    hence,  if,  on  examining   the  body,  the 
rectum  or  stomach  is  found  covered  over  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  one  of  these  poisons,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the 
lesions  are  only  slightly  marked,  the  presumption  would  be 
that  the  poison  had  bee\i  applied  after  death." 

4.  "Irritant  poisons  introduced  into  the  digestive  canal 
twenty-four  hours  after  death  do  not  occasion  either  redness  or 
inflammation,  because  the  vitality  of  the  capillaries  is  entirely 
extinct.     If  the  substances  are  applied  within  one  or  two  hours 
after  death,  they  may  possibly  determine  a  slight  congestion 
of  the  mucous  membrane;  but  it  would  be  easy  to  discover 
the  error." 

5.  "  In  cases  of  this  nature  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
poisons  are  not  rapidly  transmitted  by  imbibition  to  distant 
organs  after  death,  even  when  the  digestive  canal  contains  a 
large  amount  of  them ;  and  when  they  do  reach  these  organs, 
they  are  found  first  on  their  lower  surface — that  which  was 
the  nearest  to  the  poison.     It   should  also  be   understood 


44  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

that  the  poison  will  not  yet  have  penetrated  into  the  interior 
of  the  solid  viscera,  while  it  may  be  detected  on  their  surface; 
so  that  it  can  b'e  extracted  from  a  portion  taken  from  the 
surface  of  the  organ,  whilst  it  would  be  sought  for  in  vain 
in  its  interior.  The  case  is  altogether  different  where  the 
poison  has  been  taken  and  absorbed  during  life:  then  its 
presence  can  be  demonstrated  in  any  portion  of  the  organ 
subjected  to  the  examination." 

6.  "  If  the  body  is  not  examined  for  several  months  after 
death,  when  the  putrefaction  of  the  alimentary  canal  would 
not  permit  an  investigation  of  the  pathological  changes  which 
might  have  existed,  and  more  particularly  if,  after  a  still 
longer  lapse  of  time,  the  whole  of  the  viscera  should  be 
mingled  in  one  indistinguishable  putrefied  mass,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  the  expert  to  arrive  at  any  definite  conclusion 
in  relation  to  the  mooted  question,  without  an  attentive  in- 
quiry in  relation  to  the  previous  symptoms  of  the  deceased, 
the  nature  and  duration  of  the  sickness,  together  with  all 
the  moral  circumstances  connected  with  the  case — such  as  the 
existence  of  a  motive  on  the  part  of  the  accused,  the  proof  of 
purchase  or  possession  of  the  poison  by  him,  his  opportunities 
for  introducing  it  into  the  dead  body,  etc.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  possible  to  show  that  the  person  who  has 
made  the  charge  against  another  had  the  very  poison  in  his 
own  possession, — that  he  had  made  a  solution  of  it, — that  he 
was  in  possession  of  a  syringe  or  sound,  in  the  interior  of 
which  the  remains  of  the  poison  may  possibly  still  be  found, 
— that  he  has  been  seen  near  the  body,  turning  it  over  from 
side  to  side,  etc.  Moreover,  it  may  be  possible,  by  a  careful 
examination  of  the  other  organs  of  the  body,  to  prove  satis- 
factorily that  death  had  resulted  from  natural  causes."  (Toxi- 
cologie,  1852,  i.  p.  63.) 


EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING.  45 


CHAPTER    V. 

EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING. 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  evidences  of  poisoning  constitutes  the 
chief  business  of  the  toxicologist;  this  it  is  which  enables 
him  to  reach  a  definite  conclusion  in  the  cases  submitted  to 
his  investigation.  These  evidences  comprise,  (1)  those  de- 
rived from  the  symptoms;  (2)  those  obtained  from  the  post- 
mortem examination;  (3)  those  afforded  by  the  chemical  analysis ; 
(4)  those  derived  from  experiments  on  living  animals.  Besides 
these,  there  are  some  collateral  proofs,  which  may  be  grouped 
under  the  name  of  (5)  moral  evidence,  and  which  at  times  aid 
very  materially  in  clearing  up  a  suspicious  case.  These' 
"  evidences"  will  now  be  considered  in  their  order. 

SECTION  I. 

EVIDENCES    AFFORDED     BY    THE     SYMPTOMS. — DISEASES    WHOSE     SYMPTOMS 
RESEMBLE    THOSE    OF   POISONS. 

I.  Evidences  afforded  by  the  symptoms. — In  any  case  of  sud- 
den death  occurring  in  a  person  of  previous  good  health, 
.without  any  apparent  morbid  cause,  the  suspicion  of  poisoning 
is  readily  awakened  in  the  minds  of  many  persons.  These 
do  not  consider  that  sudden  death  from  disease  is  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  they  are  therefore  disposed  to  assign  the 
cause  of  such  a  death — especially  if  the  surrounding  circum- 
stances happen  to  be  of  a  suspicious  character  —  to  secret 
poisoning.  Such  cases  demand  the  most  scrupulous  investi- 
gation by  the  legal  physician.  He  should  undertake  it  with 
a  mind  perfectly  unbiased  in  any  direction.  Whilst  minutely 
examining  into  every  detail  for  the  eliciting  of  the  truth,  he 
should  be  most  careful  not  to  express  his  opinion  until  the 
whole  matter  has  been  thoroughly  sifted, — until  every  means 
of  research  has  been  exhausted, — lest  by  so  doing  he  give 
rise  to  suspicion  against  an  innocent  person,  whose  character 

4 


46  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

and  reputation  may  thereby  be  irreparably  injured.  It  is 
well  to  understand,  at  the  outset,  what  is  the  true  value  of 
the  symptoms  exhibited  by  a  person  supposed  to  be  poisoned, 
inasmuch  as  serious  mistakes  have  resulted  from  attaching 
an  undue  importance  to  them.  We  regard  these  symptoms 
as  constituting  one  important  factor  in  the  problem  to  be 
determined ;  but  we  think  that  no  medico-legal  case  of 
poisoning  can  possibly  be  established  by  symptoms  alone, 
for  the  reason  that  there  are  no  characteristic  symptoms  of 
any  single  poison  ;  if  this  were  possible,  and  were  generally 
admitted  to  be  so,  it  is  evident  that  there  would  be  no  neces- 
sity for  a  chemical  analysis.  But  no  court  or  jury  would  be 
satisfied  to  rest  a  capital  case  upon  this  one  item  of  evidence. 
Notwithstanding  this,  it  occasionally  happens  that  an  "  ex- 
pert," with  a  zeal  outstripping  his  knowledge,  is  betrayed 
by  his  ardor  into  stating  that  from  the  symptoms  alone  he 
had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  poison  had  been  adminis- 
tered. Of  course,  such  a  blunder  could  happen  only  to  some 
over-anxious  individual  improvised  for  the  occasion  into  an 
"  expert :"  the  practiced  toxicologist  knows  better,  and  is 
therefore  more  reserved  in  his  opinion. 

The  strong  language  of  Sir  R.  Christison  is  very  much 
to  the  point.  "  Not  many  years  ago,"  says  this  author, 
"  it  was  the  custom  to  decide  questions  of  poisoning  from 
the  symptoms  only ;  ...  it  is  now  laid  down  by  every 
esteemed  author  in  medical  jurisprudence  that  the  symptoms, 
however  exquisitely  developed,  can  never  justify  an  opinion 
in  favor  of  more  than  high  probability."  (On  Poisons,  1845, 
p.  45.)  Again  he  says:  "In  contrasting  the  symptoms  of 
poisoning  with  those  of  natural  disease,  DO  one  can  hesitate 
to  allow  that  from  them  alone  a  medical  jurist  can  never  be 
entitled  to  pronounce  that  poisoning  is  certain.  At  the  same 
time,  he  must  not,  on  that  account,  neglect  them.  For,  in 
the  first  place,  they  are  of  great  value,  as  generally  giving 
him  the  first  hints  of  the  cause  of  mischief,  and  so  leading 
him  to  search  in  time  for  better  evidence.  Next,  they 
will  often  enable  him  to  say  that  poisoning  was  possible, 
probable,  or  highly  probable;  which,  when  the  moral  evi- 
dence is  very  strong,  may  be  quite  enough  to  decide  the  case. 


EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING   FROM    SYMPTOMS.  47 

Thirdly,  although  they  can  never  entitle  him  to  say  that 
poisoning  was  certain,  they  will  sometimes  enable  him  to 
say,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  was  impossible  ;  and  to  conclude, 
when  the  chemical  or  moral  evidence  proves  that  poison  was 
given,  the  character  of  the  symptoms  may  be  necessary  to 
determine  whether  it  was  the  cause  of  death"  (loc.  cit,p.  55). 

It  is  but  fair,  however,  to  the  above  authority  to  say  that 
he  is  of  the  opinion  that,  in  certain  exceptional  instances, 
where  the  symptoms  are  of  a  peculiar  and  violent  character, 
these  may  be  sufficient  to  settle  the  diagnosis.  These  in- 
stances are  poisoning  by  the  corrosive  acids,  oxalic  acid,  arsenic, 
and  corrosive  sublimate  (the  two  latter  under  certain  conditions). 
These  alleged  exceptions  will  be  examined  under  their  appro- 
priate heads. 

Ortila  (Toxicol.,  i.  p.  10)  is  very  decided  in  the  opinion  that 
a  case  of  poisoning  can  never  be  proved  by  symptoms  alone. 
After  criticising  Christison's  assertion  that  oxalic  acid  poison- 
ing might  be  sometimes  established  by  the  peculiar  symp- 
toms, he  shows  that  this  opinion  differs  materially  from  that 
published  by  the  same  authority,  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Coindet,  in  the  Archives  Generales  de  Medecine,  ii.  p.  276,  in 
which  he  states  that  "  even  when  all  the  symptoms  of  this 
poison  (oxalic  acid)  are  present,  more  certain  evidence  will  be 
afforded  by  the  post-mortem  lesions,  and  the  chemical  analy- 
sis." Orfila  then  proceeds  to  say :  "It  will  be  sufficient  to 
affirm,  in  order  to  refute  so  dangerous  an  assertion,  that  there 
probably  does  not  exist  a  single  case  of  poisoning  occasioned 
by  the  substance  designated  by  Dr.  Christison,  that  may  not 
be  readily  simulated  by  some  disease." 

We  are  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  these 
symptoms,  which,  we  are  quite  ready  to  admit,  constitute  a 
very  important  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  in  a  case  of 
poisoning ;  and  in  certain  peculiar  cases,  as  e.g.  the  corrosives, 
they  go  very  far  towards  establishing  the  proof. 

1.  The  sudden  occurrence  of  the  symptoms  in  a  perfectly  healthy 
person  soon  after  taking  food, drink, or  medicine. — It  is  the  property 
of  most  poisons,  when  taken  in  full  doses  (as  is  usually  the 
case  when  they  are  criminally  administered),  to  produce  their 
effects  very  speedily  after  being  swallowed;  these  cannot  be 


48  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

delayed  for  any  length  of  time.  In  some  instances  the 
effect  is  almost  immediate,  as  in  the  case  of  prussic  acid  and 
nicotine;  oxalic  acid  and  strychnia,  in  large  doses,  manifest 
their  effects  within  a  few  minutes  ;  and  arsenic,  together  with 
most  of  the  irritant  poisons,  exhibits  its  power  generally 
within  half  an  hour.  Such  is  the  general  rule;  but  this  may 
be  modified  by  various  causes,  such  as  quantity,  state,  mode 
of  combination,  fullness  of  the  stomach,  and  sleep ;  the  latter 
may  advance  or  retard  the  rapidity  of  action.  Besides,  if 
the  poison  be  administered  in  small  and  repeated  doses, 
constituting  what  is  termed  "  slow-poisoning,"  the  effects 
are  altogether  different,  and  may  very  readily  be  mistaken 
for  those  of  some  natural  disease. 

What  is  chiefly  important  to  be  remembered  under  this 
head  is  the  fact  that  many  diseases  break  out  just  in  this 
manner,  suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  in  persons  previously 
healthy  (or  apparently  so),  and  this,  too,  soon  after  partaking 
of  a  meal.  Illustrations  are  afforded  in  apoplexy,  disease  of 
the  heart,  perforation  of  the  stomach,  cholera,  etc.  :  conse- 
quently, too  much  stress  should  not  be  laid  upon  this  one 
symptom.  A  suspicion  of  poisoning  is  often  successfully 
rebutted  by  showing  that  no  food,  drink,  or  medicine  had 
been  taken  for  several  hours  before  the  symptoms  manifested 
themselves.  An  illustrative  case  quoted  by  most  authors  is 
that  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  who,  while  reviewing 
some  troops,  suddenly  fell  from  his  horse,  and  died  in  half 
an  hour  afterwards.  Suspicion  of  poisoning  was  strongly 
excited,  which,  however,  was  satisfactorily  negatived  by  its 
being  shown  that  the  prince  had  partaken  of  neither  food 
nor  drink  for  four  hours  previous  to  his  sickness.  His 
death  had  really  been  caused  by  apoplexy.  When,  however, 
symptoms  resembling  those  of  poison  speedily  follow  the 
introduction  of  food  or  medicine  into  the  stomach,  there 
may  be  great  room  for  suspicion ;  but  caution  should  be 
observed  in  drawing  inferences,  since  extraordinary  coinci- 
dences present  themselves.  The  cases  of  Sir  Theodosius 
Boughton  and  M.  Fougnies  may  be  cited  as  good  illustrations 
of  actual  poisoning.  The  former  of  these  was  poisoned  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Capt.  Douellau,  who  substituted  laurel- water 


EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING    FROM    SYMPTOMS.  49 

in  place  of  his  accustomed  medicinal  draught :  the  fact  that 
alarming  symptoms  came  on  two  minutes  after  swallowing  the 
potion  constituted  an  important  part  of  the  evidence.  In 
the  case  of  Fougnies,  death  took  place  in  five  minutes  after 
swallowing  nicotine,  which  was  forcibly  administered  to  him 
by  his  brother-in-law,  the  Count  Bocarme.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  coincidence  of  a  fatal  disease  suddenly  occurring  after 
partaking  of  food,  the  case  of  M.  Pralet  may  be  cited.  He 
had  dined  as  usual,  in  company  with  his  nephew,  his  heir- 
at-law  ;  a  few  hours  afterwards,  almost  immediately  after 
swallowing  a  glass  of  wine,  he  staggered,  complained  of  feel- 
ing ill,  and  became  insensible.  He  subsequently  recovered 
his  consciousness  partially,  but  relapsed,  with  symptoms  of 
paralysis,  and  died,  without  convulsions,  in  about  eight  hours 
after  the  first  seizure.  On  opening  the  body,  great  congestion 
of  the  brain,  together  with  extravasation  of  blood,  was  found; 
a  peculiar  odor  was  also  perceived,  which  was  thought  to 
resemble  that  of  prussic  acid  more  than  anything  else !  and 
faint  traces  of  the  poison  were  alleged  to  have  been  detected. 
On  the  strength  of  this  evidence,  the  nephew  was  arrested 
and  tried  for  poisoning  his  uncle  with  prussic  acid.  He  was 
convicted  and  sentenced  ;  and  was  saved  from  execution  only 
by  the  timely  interference  of  Ortila,  who  showed  clearly  that 
death  was  solely  the  result  of  disease!  (Ann.  d'Hyg.,  1841, 
ii.  399;  awd  1843,  i.  103  and  474.) 

The  medical  man  cannot  be  too  cautious  about  expressing 
his  opinion  in  cases  of  this  character.  He  should  never 
forget  that  the  symptoms  before  him  may  really  be  those  of 
disease.  We  deem  such  a  person  guilty  of  a  flagrant  wrong 
when  he  gives  publicity  to  the  idea  of  poisoning  guided 
merely  by  the  symptoms  alone.  Unless  he  has  first  properly 
analyzed  the  suspected  food  or  drinks,  the  vomited  matters,  and 
above  all  the  urine,  he  has  no  right  to  ventilate  the  suspicion 
of  poison,  and  thus  to  implicate  a  possibly  innocent  person. 
If  death  is  not  the  consequence,  and  there  has  been  no 
chemical  examination,  as  above  mentioned,  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  clearing  up  the  case;  and,  us  Dr.  Taylor  remarks, 
"No  public  retraction  or  apology  can  ever  make  amends 
for  the  injury  which  may,  in  this  way,  be  inflicted  on  the 


50  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

reputation  of  another."  If  death  ensues,  there  is  always 
the  opportunity  of  confirming  or  refuting  the  suspicion  of 
poisoning  by  a  careful  post-mortem  and  chemical  exami- 
nation. 

Cases  are  constantly  occurring  of  this  false  imputation  of 
poisoning,  arising  from  a  mistaken  view  of  the  symptoms  by 
the  medical  attendant.  Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  117) 
alludes  to  "  certain  symptoms  following  the  use  of  food  con- 
taining no  poison,  and  yet  from  taste  and  smell,  as  well  as 
the  coincidental  effects,  there  will  be  a  strong  disposition  to 
charge  the  crime  of  poisoning  on  others."  He  speaks  of 
many  such  cases  falling  under  his  own  observation  in  which 
the  idea  of  poison  had  been  taken  up,  and  so  persisted  in 
that  even  the  results  of  a  chemical  investigation  were  doubted ! 
"  In  such  cases,  the  symptoms  appear  to  result  from  the  force 
of  imagination"  (loc.  tit). 

A  case  of  some  notoriety  (State  of  Maryland  vs.  Mrs.  E. 
G.  Wharton,  for  attempting  to  poison  Eugene  Van  Ness, 
Annapolis,  January,  1873)  aflbrds  a  good  illustration  of  the 
position  above  taken  in  regard  to  the  inconclusiveness  of 
"symptoms"  when  regarded  alone.  It  was  alleged  that  the 
prisoner  had  attempted  to  poison  Mr.  Van  Ness  with  prussic 
acid,  tartar  emetic,  and  strychnia,  on  several  different  occa- 
sions; and  the  suspicion  was  based  solely  on  the  fact  that 
he  had  exhibited  certain  symptoms  which  the  "experts"  for 
the  State  testified  were  such  as  indicated,  in  their  opinion, 
the  presence  of  the  above-named  poisons.  The  defense  con- 
tended that  all  these  "symptoms"  were  perfectly  compatible 
with  ordinary  sickness  (Van  Ness  had  at  times  complained 
of  somewhat  similar  symptoms);  and,  further,  that  some  of 
them  were  not  compatible  with  the  alleged  poisons.  More- 
over, as  the  medical  attendants  who  acted  as  "experts"  in 
the  case  had  neglected  to  make  any  chemical  examination  of 
the  suspected  food,  or  the  matters  vomited,  or  the  urine,  and 
had  administered  no  antidote,  at  least  for  the  alleged  tartar 
emetic,  or  prussic  acid,  we  think  there  was  an  entire  failure  of 
medical  proof  of  the  alleged  poisoning.  The  result  was  a 
disagreement  of  the  jury;  and  before  the  second  trial  came 
on,  the  State  virtually  abandoned  the  case.  (See  Review 


EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING    FROM    SYMPTOMS.  51 

of  the  Medical  Testimony  in  this  trial,  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Wood, 
in  N.  Y.  Medical  Record,  1873.) 

2.  The  additional  fact  that  several  persons,  partaking  of  the 
same  food  or  drinks,  all  exhibit  the  same  symptoms. — This  mate- 
rially strengthens  the  evidence  from  the  83'mptoms,  since  it 
is  not  likely  that  several  persons  should  be  attacked  by  a 
similar  disease,  just  at  the  same  period  of  time.  Neverthe- 
less, to  show  how  such  a  case  may  be  possible,  Dr.  Taylor 
(On  Poisons,  p.  119)  mentions  the  case  of  a  family  consist- 
ing of  four  persons  who  sat  down  to  dinner  in  London,  all 
apparently  in  good  health.  Soon  after  the  meal  three  of 
these  were  seized  with  violent  symptoms  of  irritant  poison- 
ing. Two  of  the  persons  died.  The  son,  who  was  the  only 
member  of  the  family  who  did  not  suffer,  and  who  was 
known  to  be  hostile  to  his  parents,  was  arrested  on  suspi- 
cion of  having  poisoned  them ;  but  a  strict  investigation 
of  the  case  subsequently  proved  that  ,the  deaths  had  been 
occasioned  by  malignant  cholera,  which  was  prevailing  in 
London  at  the  time. 

It  is  hence  evident  that  even  a  simultaneous  occurrence  of 
suspicious  symptoms  merely  furnishes  &  presumption  in  favor 
of  poisoning, — to  be  supported  or  rebutted  by  other  circum- 
stances. If,  in  the  above  case,  or  in  others  similar,  a  chem- 
ical analysis  had  detected  poison  in  the  food  or  vomited 
matters,  or  in  the  excreta  of  the  sufferers,  of  course  there 
could  be  no  hesitation  in  referring  the  symptoms  to  poison ; 
and  yet  it  can  be  seen  how,  even  in  such  an  extreme  case, 
there  might  possibly  be  a  coincident  disease.  If  such  a  con- 
tingency should  ever  happen,  it  will  become  the  duty  of  the 
medical  jurist  to  apply  those  rules  of  discrimination  which 
are  resorted  to  in  cases  of  violent  death  from  injuries. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mere  want  of  this  coincidence  of 
symptoms  among  a  number  of  persons  who  have  partaken 
of  the, same  meal,  is  no  proof  of  the  absence  of  poison  ;  for 
it  may  readily  happen  that  the  poison  has  been  introduced 
into  only  a  certain  portion  of  the  food, — as  in  the  gravy  and 
not  in  the  meat,  in  the  crust  of  a  pie  and  not  in  its  con- 
tents, or  in  the  sauce  and  not  in  the  pudding,  or  vice  versa. 
Hence  it  will  turn  out  that  only  those  who  have  partaken 


52  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

of  the  one  special  article  of  food  or  drink  manifest  the  symp- 
toms of  poisoning. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  remark  that  obscure  symptoms  of 
poisoning  may  occur  simultaneously  in  several  members  of  a 
family,  which  may  give  rise  to  unfounded  suspicions  against 
an  innocent  individual.  These  may  generally  be  traced  to  an 
accidental  introduction  through  the  food  or  drink,  as  from 
copper  or  lead,  through  a  want  of  proper  care  and  cleanli- 
ness. Finally,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  symptoms  of 
irritant  poisoning  are  occasionally  manifested  simultaneously 
in  a  number  of  persons  who  have  eaten  food  rendered  un- 
wholesome by  disease  or  decay.  (See  post.) 

3.  The  rapidcourse  of  the  symptoms  towards  a  fatal  termination. — 
Although  this  feature  is  generally  regarded  as  indicating  the 
presence  of  a  poison,  it  is  not  of  much  practical  value  as  a 
means  of  diagnosis ;  since  many  of  the  most  active  poisons 
not  unfrequently  prove  fatal  after  a  protracted  interval,  whilst 
many  diseases  run  their  course  very  rapidly. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  relation  to  diagnosticating  a 
case  of  suspected  poisoning,  by  the  symptoms,  it  will  be  ap- 
parent that  the  real  difficulty  consists  in  discriminating  be- 
tween these,  and  the  symptoms  exhibited  by  disease.  It  will 
therefore  be  proper  briefly  to  consider  the  disorders  whose 
symptoms  most  resemble  those  of  poisoning. 

The  diseases  most  likely  to  simulate  irritant  poisoning  are 
cholera,  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  ulceration 
and  perforation  of  the  stomach,  peritonitis,  ilius,  and  strangu- 
lated hernia.  Those  that  may  simulate  neurotic  poisoning  are 
apoplexy,  epilepsy,  inflammation  of  the  brain,  tetanus,  and 
diseases  of  the  heart.  These  will  be  briefly  considered. 

Cholera. — (a)  Common  cholera  morbus  resembles  in  many 
respects,  in  symptoms,  several  of  the  irritant  poisons,  par- 
ticularly arsenic.  Thus,  it  often  comes  on  within  an  hour 
after  eating  indigestible  food;  there  are  violent  vomiting 
and  purging,  with  cramps;  a  cold  skin,  feeble  pulse,  thirst, 
and  depression  of  strength.  Mistakes  have  frequently  been 
made  in  confounding  this  disease  with  arsenical  poisoning. 
The  following  are  the  most  distinctive  points:  Cholera  mor- 
bus is  usually  dependent  on  some  irregularity  of  diet,  and 


DISEASES    SIMULATING    IRRITANT    POISONING.  53 

appears  chiefly  at  the  latter  end  of  summer ;  poisoning  by 
arsenic  may  occur,  of  course,  at  any  season.  The  dejections 
of  cholera  morbus  are  always  tinged  with  bile,  and  never 
with  blood ;  in  poisoning,  they  very  often  contain  blood  and 
mucus.  In  cholera,  there  is  wanting  the  sense  of  burning 
and  constriction  of  the  throat,  which  are  prominent  symp- 
toms in  arsenic-poisoning.  Besides,  there  are  often  certain 
special  and  occasional  symptoms  present  in  poisoning  from 
arsenic  which  are  wanting  in  cholera  morbus,  as  the  redness 
of  the  conjunctiva,  the  eczematous  eruption,  and  the  paraly- 
sis. The  only  certain  means  of  diagnosis  in  a  non-fatal  case 
is  a  chemical  examination  of  the  food,  the  matters  vomited, 
and  especially  the  urine  (vide  post,  ARSENIC). 

(b)  The  symptoms  of  Asiatic  cholera  more  strongly  resem- 
ble those  of  tartar  emetic  than  of  arsenic.  The  copious 
watery  discharges  from  the  stomach  and  bowels,  the  profuse 
cold  perspiration,  the  cramps,  the  cold  and  sometimes  livid 
skin,  the  feeble,  fluttering  pulse,  the  extreme  prostration — 
occur  in  each  case.  A  microscopic  examination  of  the  dis- 
charges in  cholera,  would  doubtless  lead  to  a  correct  diag- 
nosis. 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  (Grastro-enteritis). — 
As  the  irritant  poisons  spend  their  force  chiefly  upon  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  their  most  prominent  symptoms — vomiting,  purging, 
and  abdominal  pain — should  be  mistaken  for  the  ordinary 
signs  of  gastro-enteritis.  The  following  are  the  points  of 
divergence  in  their  symptoms :  Idiopathic  gastritis  is  a  very 
rare  disease ;  when  gastritis  does  occur,  therefore,  it  may 
generally  be  traced  to  some  direct  irritating  cause,  such  as 
poison.  The  fact  of  the  violent  symptoms  coming  on  very 
soon  after  a  meal,  would  excite  suspicion,  although,  of  course, 
this  would  not  be  conclusive.  Again,  there  is,  in  cases  of 
poisoning,  usually  an  absence  of  the  fever  which  accompanies 
the  disease. 

In  peritonitis,  the  constipation  would  serve  as  a  distinctive 
mark  to  prevent  its  being  mistaken  for  irritant  poisoning. 
Strangulation  of  the  bowete,  intussusception,  and  strangulated  her- 
nia have  sometimes  given  rise  to  suspicion  of  irritant  poison- 


54  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

i 

ing,  chiefly  from  the  sudden  accession  of  pain,  and  the  vomit- 
ing; but  a  careful  examination  of  all  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  and  especially  the  post-rnortem  investigation  in  a 
fatal  case,  will  reveal  its  true  nature. 

Among  the  less  frequent  diseases  may  be  mentioned 
rupture  of  the  stomach  and  duodenum, — instances  of  which  are 
mentioned  by  Christisou  as  having  occurred  under  circum- 
stances which  might  easily  have  suggested  irritant  poison- 
ing; rupture  of  the  biliary  ducts;  rupture  of  the  uterus  (of  which 
a  striking  case  is  given  by  Christison,  and  which  became 
the  subject  of  judicial  investigation  as  a  case  of  poisoning); 
and  the  effects  of  drinking  cold  water.  In  the  above  cases,  the 
post-mortem  examination  alone  could  clear  up  the  diagnosis. 

Diseases  simulating  neurotic  poisoning.  Apoplexy. — The  symp- 
toms of  this  disease  so  closely  simulate  those  of  some  of 
the  narcotic  poisons,  especially  opium,  that  it  is  often  im- 
possible to  distinguish  between  them  by  these  symptoms 
alone.  The  following  characters  are  usually  given  as  diag- 
nostic marks:  Apoplexy  is  comparatively  of  rare  occurrence 
before  the  age  of  thirty  years:  it  is  often  preceded  by  cer- 
tain premonitory  signs ;  its  symptoms  may  not  come  on  for 
several  hours  after  food  or  drink  has  been  taken, — which 
would  negative  the  idea  of  poisoning  (see  ante,  p.  47);  the 
coma  frequently  comes  on  suddenly,  whilst  the  narcotism 
from  opium  is  gradual.  The  pupils  are  dilated  in  apoplexy, 
but  contracted,  as  a  rule,  in  opium-poisoning. 

To  the  above  general  symptoms  connected  with  apoplexy 
there  are  numerous  exceptions:  thus,  apoplexy  does  occa- 
sionally happen  in  the  young,  and  even  in  infants;  in  some 
instances  it  comes  on  suddenly,  and  soon  after  eating;  occa- 
sionally the  pupils  are  contracted  in  apoplexy  (see  Dr.  Wilks' 
cases  of  apoplexy  of  the  pons  Varolii,  Med.  Times  and  Gaz., 
1863);  and  in  the  latter  stages  of  opium-poisoning  they  are 
frequently  dilated.  In  fatal  cases  of  opium-poisoning  the 
vessels  of  the  brain  and  dura  mater  are  generally  gorged  with 
blood ;  sometimes  there  is  an  eft'usion  of  serum  into  the  ven- 
tricles and  beneath  the  membranes ;  but  no  extravasation  of 
blood  into  the  substance  of  the  brain,  as  is  usual  in  apoplexy. 

Epilepsy. — Some  of  the  symptoms  of  this  disorder  par- 


DISEASES    SIMULATING    NEUROTIC    POISONING.  55 

tially  resemble  those  of  prussic  acid  poisoning;  but  the 
history  of  the  case  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  clear  up  all 
doubts  as  to  its  real  character.  The  first  epileptic  paroxysm 
is  rarely,  if  ever,  fatal. 

Tetanus. — This  disease  is  very  seldom  of  spontaneous 
origin,  or  idiopathic;  it  is  almost  always  the  result  of  an 
injury  inflicted  upon  tendons,  nerves,  aponeuroses,  or  fasciae; 
and  frequently  it  can  be  traced  to  very  slight  injuries  of  these 
parts  of  the  bod}-.  Tetanic  convulsions  are  also  a  character- 
istic result  of  poisoning  by  nuxvomica  and  strychnia.  They 
occasionally  also  manifest  themselves  in  that  protean  dis- 
order, hysteria;  and  exceptionally,  in  poisoning  from  arsenic, 
antimony,  morphia,  and  some  other  poisons.  The  following 
are  the  diagnostic  signs  distinguishing  ordinary  tetanus  from 
that  produced  by  strychnia:  in  ordinary  tetanus,  the  spasm 
comes  on  gradually ;  the  rigidit}7  commences  in  the  jaws,  and 
then  advances  progressively  to  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  trunk, 
and  extremities.  According  to  Mr.  Colles  (Lect.  on  Surg., 
i.  p.  72),  the  muscles  of  the  fingers  are  the  last  and  least  af- 
fected. This  rigidity  continues  more  or  less  uninterruptedly 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  disease.  In  tetanus  from 
strychnia,  the  spasm  comes  on  suddenly,  after  a  shivering, 
attacking  the  whole  body  and  limbs  simultaneously,  and  af- 
fecting the  muscles  of  the  jaw  last.  The  paroxysm  lasts  a  few 
minutes,  when  a  complete  intermission  occurs,  during  which 
there  is  a  perfect  relaxation  of  all  the  muscles.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  symptoms  is  also  a  distinctive  mark :  whilst  the 
rigidity  of  the  disease  may  continue  for  days,  the  convul- 
sions of  strychnia  rarely  last  over  two  hours;  often  they 
terminate  in  death  in  less  than  half  an  hour.  In  the  con- 
vulsions of  strychnia,  the  intellect  is  unaffected,  even  in  the 
parox}'sms ;  whilst  in  tetanoid  hysteria  there  is  often  loss  of 
consciousness,  and  convulsive  motions  of  the  limbs  alternate 
between  stiffness  or  rigidity ;  moreover,  whilst  in  tetanus 
from  strychnia  the  paroxysms  are  very  apt  to  terminate 
fatally,  in  hysteria  they  never  do.  Finally,  the  absence  of 
any  wound,  burn,  or  marks  of  an  injury  or  of  exposure  to 
cold  would  negative  the  idea  of  disease,  and  rather  point  to 
strychnia  as  the  cause. 


56  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Distension  and  rupture  of  the  stomach  may  result  in  sudden 
death,  with,  symptoms  of  apoplexy;  and,  as  these  usual!}' 
come  on  after  hearty  eating,  a  suspicion  of  poisoning  may 
arise.  A  proper  examination  of  the  body  after  death  will 
alone  reveal  the  nature  of  the  case. 


SECTION  II. 

EVIDENCES    FROM    POST-MORTEM    APPEARANCES.  —  LESIONS   COMMON   TO   DIS- 
EASE  AND    POISONS. 

II.  Evidences  derived  from  post-mortem  appearances.  —  The 
evidence  obtained  from  this  source,  like  that  derived  from 
the  symptoms,  can  never  be  absolutely  conclusive :  it  can 
merely  be  more  or  less  suggestive.  Only  a  few  poisonous 
substances  make  such  decided  impressions  upon  the  living 
tissues  as  to  warrant  even  a  very  strong  presumption  of  their 
presence :  these  are  the  caustic  acids  and  alkalies,  which 
usually  produce  very  decided  pathological  changes — such  as 
erosion,  perforation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  alteration  of 
color,  softening  of  tissue,  etc.  Yet  there  have  been  fatal 
cases  of  poisoning  from  these  substances,  with  an  absence  of 
their  usual  corrosive  effects  after  death. 

According  to  Prof.  "Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p. 
45),  "some  poisons  leave  no  appreciable  morbid  changes  in 
the  dead  body;  and  of  those  that  usually  do,  the  appearances 
are  subject  to  great  variety,  and  in  many  instances  are  similar 
to  the  effects  of  ordinary  disease,  or  even  the  results  of  cada- 
veric change." 

Dr.  Taylor  remarks  (On  Poisons,  p.  154)  that  "  any  evi- 
dence derivable  from  appearances  in  the  body  of  a  person 
poisoned  will  be  imperfect,  unless  we  are  able  to  distinguish 
them  from  those  analogous  changes  often  met  with  as  the 
results  of  ordinary  disease." 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  in  cases  of  death  from 
poisoning,  the  external  appearance  of  the  body  presented  a 
peculiar  character,  such  as  an  unusual  degree  of  lividity  and 
a  tendency  to  rapid  putrefaction.  This  idea  is  erroneous,  so 
far  as  relates  to  the  great  mass  of  cases.  The  exception 
seems  to  be  in  poisoning  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  which 


EVIDENCES    OF    POISONING    FROM   THE   LESIONS.  57 

case  putrefaction  does  occur  more  rapidly  than  in  death  from 
other  poisons;  on  the  other  hand,  arsenic,  alcohol,  and  sul- 
phuric acid  appear  to  exert  an  anti-putrescent  influence  upon 
the  body. 

Under  this  head,  we  may  mention  certain  external  marks 
upon  the  body  —  dead  or  living  —  which  would  be  very  sug- 
gestive of  particular  poisons,  as,  for  example,  the  peculiar 
stains  of  the  mineral  acids  on  the  lips,  cheeks,  tongue,  fauces, 
etc..  and  sometimes  even  on  the  dress  of  the  person.  Some- 
times the  odor  of  certain  poisons  may  be  detected  even  before 
opening  the  body, — e.g.  that  of  prussic  acid,  opium,  alcohol, 
or  nicotine.  The  open,  staring  appearance  of  the  eye,  to- 
gether with  livid  spots  about  the  face,  neck,  and  hands,  is 
suggestive  of  poisoning  with  prussic  acid;  a  very  long-con- 
tinued rigidity  of  the  body  after  death  usually  attends  cases 
of  strychnia-poisoning. 

In  relation  to  the  proofs  of  poisoning  presented  by  an 
internal  inspection  of  the  body,  valuable  information  may 
sometimes  be  gained  from  the  peculiar  odor  exhaled.  Thus, 
frequently,  though  not  always,  on  opening  the  body  of  a 
person  who  has  recently  died  from  prussic  acid  poisoning,  a 
very  strong  odor  of  that  substance  can  be  perceived.  The 
same  is  sometimes  the  case  where  death  has  resulted  from 
opium,  or  its  liquid  preparations;  and  in  phosphorus-poison- 
ing, the  alliaceous  odor  and  the  white  fumes  of  phosphorous 
acid  are  strongly  characteristic  of  that  poison.  In  poisoning 
from  nicotine,  the  peculiar  penetrating  odor  of  this  substance 
may  often  be  recognized  in  the  dead  body ;  and  in  cases 
of  death  from  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  presence  of  this 
poisonous  gas  is  detected  in  a  similar  manner.  So,  likewise, 
in  some  cases  of  poisoning  with  corrosive  sublimate,  there 
is  found,  after  death,  a  peculiar,  slate-colored  deposit  on  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  stomach,  consisting  of  reduced  mer- 
cury in  a  finely-divided  state;  and  at  times,  as  the  result  of 
arsenical  poisoning,  there  may  be  seen  white  patches,  com- 
posed of  arsenious  acid,  firmly  attached  to  the  highly-inflamed 
mucous  coat  of  the  stomach:  such  patches  of  inflammation 
are  very  characteristic  of  this  poison.  Again,  the  remains  of 
various  poisons  can  be  recognized  after  death,  in  the  stomach 


58  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

and  bowels,  by  close  inspection  either  by  the  naked  eye,  or 
with  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  Thus,  cantharides,  when 
swallowed  in  powder,  Scheele's  green,  and  orpiment,  mix 
vomica,  savin,  and  various  other  vegetable  leaves  and  seeds, 
present  characteristic  marks,  botanical  and  otherwise,  by 
which  they  can  be  identified,  after  death. 

But  there  are  certain  alterations  of  the  tissues  and  organs 

O 

themselves  —  true  pathological  lesio'ns —  resulting  from  the 
direct  action  of  poisons,  which' it  is  important  to  understand. 
As  a  rule,  the  irritant  poisons  leave  behind  them  very  decided 
evidences  of  their  action  on  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous 
membrane,  such  as  redness  more  or  less  diffused  and  intense, 
thickening,  softening,  ulceration,  perforation,  and  gangrene. 
So,  likewise,  the  neurotic  poisons  leave  their  impress  upon  the 
nervous  centres,  in  the  form  of  congestion  of  the  vessels  of 
the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  effusion  of  serum  (rarely  of 
blood)  into  the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  and  beneath  the  mem- 
branes; sometimes  congestion  of  the  lungs,  general  fulness 
of  the  venous  system,  and  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  etc. 

Considerable  importance  attaches  to  the  negative  evidence 
from  post-mortem  inspection.  Thus,  in  a  case  of  alleged 
poisoning  by  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  the  absence  of  all  marks 
of  corrosion  in  the  mouth,  gullet,  and  intestinal  canal  would 
negative  the  charge;  but  while  the  absence  of  all  traces  of 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  would  render  the  fact  of  poisoning  by  arsenic,  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  and  other  irritants  highly  improbable,  it 
would  not  necessarily  invalidate  it,  since,  as  we  shall  learn 
hereafter,  death  may  occur  from  these  powerful  irritants 
without  leaving  behind  any  pathological  lesion.  The  nega- 
tive evidence  of  absence  of  congestion  of  the  brain,  in  cases 
of  narcotic  poisoning,  is  weaker. 

It  must  also  be  remarked  that  post-mortem  appearances 
similar  to  those  above  mentioned,  even  though  confirmed 
by  the  chemical  detection  of  the  poison  in  the  stomach,  do 
not  furnish  absolute  proof  that  death  was  caused  by  poison ; 
for  this  might,  after  all,  be  due  to  some  cause  anticipating 
its  fatal  action.  Such  a  coincidence  could  be  determined 
only  by  a  careful  post-mortem  examination.  The  detection 


LESIONS   RESEMBLING   THE   EFFECTS   OF   POISONS.  59 

of  the  absorbed  poison  in  the  viscera  would  go  still  farther  to 
establish  the  proof  of  poisoning.  On  the  other  hand,  a  dead 
body  may  bear  upon  it  very  positive  evidence  of  violence, 
such  as  bruises,  stabs,  and  other  wounds,  sufficient  to  account 
for  death,  and  yet  on  inspection  this  may  be  found  to  have 
been  actually  caused  by  poison. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  there  are  many  post-mortem 
appearances  common  to  poison  and  disease, — -just  as  is  the 
case  with  symptoms:  it  is  important  to  have  a  clear  under- 
standing of  these,  so  as  not  to  confound  them,  in  making  an 
inspection. 

Redness. — This  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  all  the  effects 
of  an  irritant  poison  ;  but  it  is  likewise  a  very  frequent  con- 
sequence of  disease;  and,  according  to  the  highest  authorities, 
it  is  often  the  result  of  post-mortem  changes,  independently 
of  any  antecedent  disease.  The  researches  of  Drs.  Yellowly 
and  Andral  have  put  this  matter  beyond  a  doubt:  hence 
mere  redness  of  the  stomach  cannot  be  accepted  as  any  proof 
of  poisoning.  In  ordinary  gastro-enteritis,  where  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  is  highly  inflamed, 
redness  is,  of  course,  a  prominent  sign  ;  and  inasmuch  as  the 
symptoms  before  death  are  very  similar  to  those  occasioned 
by  arsenic,  or  some  other  irritant,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
make  out  the  diagnosis  clearly  without  a  chemical  analysis; 
and  the  result  even  of  this  would  not  necessarily  be  final  or 
positive;  for  supposing  only  a  minute  quantity  of  arsenic  to 
be  discovered — not  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  but  in  its 
tissues, — and  in  the  liver  and  other  viscera  of  the  body,  this 
circumstance  alone  would  not  be  positive  proof  of  death  from 
poison.  For  it  might  so  happen  that  the  individual  had  been 
taking  arsenic  medicinally,  in  small  doses,  for  weeks  or  months 
previously,  and  then  have  died  suddenly  from  an  acute  attack 
of  gastro-enteritis,  under  suspicious  circumstances ;  and  after 
death,  the  suspicion  would  appear  to  be  sustained  by  the  chem- 
ical discovery  of  the  absorbed  poison  in  the  viscera.  We 
have  met,  in  our  own  experience,  with  just  such  a  case,  in 
which  the  success  of  the  defense  consisted  in  showing  that 
the  absorbed  arsenic  detected  in  the  liver  of  the  deceased 
could  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  her  having  taken 


60  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

this  substance  medicinally  for  a  considerable  time  prior  to 
her  death:  the  prisoner  was  acquitted.  If,  however,  in  a 
doubtful  case  of  the  above  character,  where  the  symptoms 
and  post-mortem  lesions  were  consistent  with  poisoning,  the 
poison  had  been  found  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  and  also 
in  the  absorbed  state,  in  the  liver,  etc.,  such  a  discovery  would 
furnish  positive  proof  of  the  crime,  unless  it  could  be  shown 
that  the  poison  had  been  introduced  into  the  stomach  after 
death. 

It  is  proper  to  state,  on  the  other  hand,  that  when  internal 
redness  of  the  stomach  is  really  due  to  arsenic-poisoning, 
this  condition  may  continue,  and  be  recognized  many  months 
after  death,  in  consequence,  probably,  of  the  antiseptic  in- 
fluence of  the  poison  upon  the  tissues. 

Ulceration. — This  result  is  rare  as  a  consequence  of  acute 
irritant  poisoning;  but  it  occasionally  occurs  as  one  of  the 
sequences  of  chronic  or  slow  poisoning  by  arsenic.  It  is 
believed  to  be  more  commonly  the  result  of  disease  than  of 
poisoning.  It  is  a  very  insidious  disorder,  often  lasting  for 
a  considerable  time  without  causing  much  inconvenience 
to  the  patient,  except  occasional  nausea  and  vomiting,  and 
loss  of  appetite.  Dr.  Taylor  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that 
ulceration  from  poisoning  has  never  been  known  to  occur 
until  after  the  appearance  of  symptoms  indicative  of  irritant 
poisoning :  this  fact  would  aid  us  in  making  the  diagnosis. 
In  ulceration  from  disease,  the  mucous  membrane  is  com- 
monly only  reddened  immediately  around  the  ulcer;  in 
ulceration  from  poisoning,  the  redness  is  generally  diffused 
throughout  the  membrane,  and  extends  into  the  small  intes- 
tines. The  clinical  history  of  the  case  will  aid  in  clearing 
it  up. 

Ulceration  must  not  be  confounded  with  corrosion :  the 
former  is  a  vital  process, — the  parts  being  removed  by  ab- 
sorption ;  the  latter  is  the  result  of  chemical  action,  at  once 
destroying  their  vitality.  It  is  also  a  very  rapid  process  :  the 
former  is  slow.  The  complete  and  thorough  destruction  of 
tissue  produced  by  the  mineral  acids,  can  hardly  fail  to  dis- 
close the  real  cause  of  death.  There  is  no  disease  which  could 
produce  such  well-marked  appearances  in  so  short  a  time. 


LESIONS   RESEMBLING   THE   EFFECTS   OF    POISONS.  61 

Softening. — The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  and  bowels 
may  undergo  this  change,  both  as  the  result  of  poisoning 
and  of  disease;  also,  according  to  good  authority,  from  the 
post-mortem  solvent  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  In  some 
cases,  the  coats  of  the  stomach  become  thickened  and  hard- 
ened under  the  effects  of  arsenic  and  other  irritants.  We  are 
not  warranted,  from. .softening  alone,  to  infer  the  existence  of 
an  irritant  poison.  The  absence  of  the  peculiar  symptoms 
and  of  other  appearances  indicative  of  poison,  together  with 
a  failure  to  discover  it  by  a  chemical  analysis,  would  be  quite 
sufficient  to  disprove  such  a  charge. 

Perforation. — When  this  is  the  result  of  poisoning,  it  is 
almost  exclusively  due  to  the  corrosives,  especially  the  min- 
eral acids.  In  such  cases,  the  aperture  is  large  and  ragged; 
the  edges  are  soft  and  friable ;  the  poison  escapes  into  the 
abdomen,  and  can  there  readily  be  detected.  In  perforation 
from  disease  (ulceration),  the  aperture  is  small;  and  it  often 
comes  on  very  suddenly  after  a  meal,  thus  giving  rise  to 
a  suspicion  of  poisoning.  It  is  usually  fatal,  death  being 
ascribed  to  the  consequent  peritonitis. 

The  following  are  the  diagnostic  points:  in  poisoning,  it 
is  preceded  by  very  severe  symptoms;  in  disease,  the  pre- 
ceding symptoms  are  generally  mild,  and  often  resemble 
those  of  dyspepsia;  the  attack,  however,  comes  on  very  sud- 
denly after  eating;  vomiting  is  usually  absent,  or  else  is 
very  slight;  and  instead  of  purging  there  is  constipation. 
These,  together  with  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
aperture,  and  the  result  of  the  chemical  examination,  w7ill 
serve  to  show  the  true  nature  of  the  case. 

Cases  of  sudden  perforation  of  the  intestines  from  disease 
are  reported,  which  gave  rise  to  a  suspicion  of  poisoning,  the 
true  nature  of  which  was  ascertained  only  by  a  post-mortem 
examination.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  intestines  have 
occasionally  been  perforated  by  worms  infesting  the  bowels. 
A  case  is  reported  by  Flandin,  where  this  was  made  aground 
of  defense  (Taylor,  On  Poisons,  p.  165). 


62  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 


SECTION   III. 

INSPECTION    OF   THE   BODY. — COLLECTION   AND    PRESERVATION   OF   THE 
SUSPECTED    MATERIALS. 

Inspection  of  the  body. — This  is  the  appropriate  place  to 
offer  some  suggestions  in  reference  to  the  proper  mode  of 
inspecting  a  dead  body  with  a  view  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  death  was  caused  by  poison.  The  duty  of 
the  expert  may  have  reference,  (1)  to  the  examination  of  a 
body  recently  dead,  and  (2)  to  the  exhumation  and  examina- 
tion of  a  body  dead  for  a  long  time. 

In  reference  to  the  former,  the  expert  should  ascertain,  if 
possible,  the  exact  time  of  death,  and  compare  this  with  the 
first  appearance  of  the  symptoms,  so  as  to  determine  how 
long  the  person  survived  after  being  attacked.  He  should 
notice  the  attitude  and  position  of  the  body,  as  indicating 
convulsion — tetanic  or  otherwise — during  life;  the  state  of 
the  countenance,  whether  livid  or  pallid,  ecchymosed  or  not; 
the  condition  of  the  dress,  whether  exhibiting  marks  or  spots 
of  the  mineral  acids,  or  of  vomited  matters;  likewise  the 
condition  of  all  surrounding  objects,  whether  stained  with 
vomited  matters,  blood,  etc;  He  should  carefully  collect 
any  vomited  matters,  and  remove  any  suspicious  stains  from 
the  floor,  articles  of  furniture,  etc.,  by  scraping,  or  otherwise. 
He  should  collect,  and  carefully  lay  aside,  all  suspicious 
papers,  boxes,  cups,  bottles,  etc.,  for  further  examination. 

When  a  considerable  length  of  time  has  elapsed  since  the 
death  occurred,  and  for  some  reason  the  suspicion  of  poison- 
ing has  been  aroused,  a  judicial  order  is  obtained,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  disinter  the  body.  The  expert  should 
always  be  present  at  the  exhumation  of  the  body,  and  give 
his  attention  to  the  minutest  details  connected  with  this  pro- 
cedure. He  should  take  notes  of  the  mode  of  burial;  the 
nature  of  the  soil;  the  condition  of  the  coffin,  whether 
sound  or  decayed,  and  the  state  of  the  clothing  of  the  body. 
If  the  body  be  in  good  preservation,  and  the  coffin  sound, 
the  former  should  be  lifted  out,  and  laid  upon  a  table  near 
by,  suitable  for  making  the  autopsy;  but  if,  from  the  long 


INSPECTION   OF   THE   BODY.  63 

period  of  interment,  the  body  be  much  putrefied,  and  the 
coffin  much  decayed,  it  will  be  proper  to  collect  some  of  the 
debris  adherent,  as  well  as  some  of  the  adherent  earth,  and 
likewise  some  of  the  soil  taken  from  another  part  of  the 
cemetery,  for  a  comparative  analysis. 

The  rules  governing  the  autopsy  are  the  same  as  those 
which  regulate  other  judicial  post-mortem  examinations. 
The  first  thing  to  be  noticed  is  the'  condition  of  the  body — 
whether  well  preserved  or  not;  and  whether  it  has  been 
embalmed.  One  general  rule  should  regulate  every  such 
investigation,  namely,  that  it  should  be  so  thorough  and  ex- 
haustive as  to  leave  no  single  organ  of  the  body  unexamined. 
We  cannot  be  too  emphatic  upon  this  point.  Tardieu  (Sur 
rEmpoisonnement,  p.  57)  uses  very  decided  language  on 
the  subject:  "Most  unquestionably  this  post-mortem  exam- 
ination should  be  complete,  without  omitting  a  single  organ, 
so  as  to  overlook  no  lesion  whatsoever,  and  no  cause  of  either 
natural  or  accidental  death." 

The  evils  resulting  from  a  careless  or  superficial  autopsy, 
in  such  a  case,  will  be  apparent  on  a  moment's  reflection. 
Cases  of  poisoning  constantly  occur,  where  the  ends  of  justice 
are  imperiled  or  defeated  by  just  such  an  imperfect  post- 
mortem examination.  Suppose  a  case  of  alleged  poisoning 
by  opium :  the  symptoms  strongly  resemble  those  of  apoplexy ; 
the  autopsy  is  conducted  in  this  careless,  slovenly  manner; 
the  brain  not  minutely  inspected  for  disease;  the  spinal  cord 
altogether  omitted;  the  kidneys  and  other  organs  neglected. 
The  incompetent  "  expert,"  however,  ventures  upon  the 
witness-stand,  and  presumes,  even  under  the  solemn  sur- 
roundings of  a  case  of  life  or  death,  to  give  his  opinion  that 
death  was  caused  by  opium-poisoning,  because  he  had  dis- 
covered some  congestion  of  the  brain,  with,  perhaps,  some 
effusion  !  no  microscopic  examination  of  the  minute  cerebral 
vessels,  or  of  the  heart ;  no  inspection  of  the  kidneys  for 
granular  disease  to  indicate  ursemic  poisoning;  and,  most 
probably,  no  examination  of  the  urine  to  confirm  or  rebut 
this  suspicion  !  It  is  positively  alarming  to  contemplate  the 
danger  to  which,  on  the  one  hand,  innocent  persons,  wrong- 
fully accused,  may  be  exposed,  through  such  ignorant  and 


64  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

careless  work,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  how,  by  creating  doubts 
in  the  minds  of  the  jury,  a  really  guilty  person  may  fail  to 
be  convicted. 

In  cases  of  suspected  poisoning,  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended to  place  a  double  ligature  at  each  end  of  the  stomach, 
and  to  cut  between  them,  so  as  to  preserve  this  organ  with 
its  contents  entire  for  future  examination.  Tardieu,  however 
(loc.  tit.,  p.  58),  strongly  advises  to  examine  the  interior  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines  on  the  spot,  before  any  further 
putrefactive  change  occurs,  which  is  very  apt  to  be  the  case. 
For  this  purpose,  he  recommends  removing  the  stomach 
carefully  from  the  body,  without  tying  it,  and  then  emptying 
the  contents  into  a  proper  vessel:  the  intestine  is  to  be 
emptied  by  placing  the  upper  end  in  the  vessel,  and  then 
detaching  it  from  the  mesentery,  gradually  pushing  the  con- 
tents into  the  vessel.  After  this,  it  will  be  easy,  by  cutting 
open  the  stomach  and  intestines,  to  examine  their  inner 
coating.  Whichever  mode  the  expert  may  prefer  to  adopt, 
he  should  be  provided,  in  advance,  with  several  new  and 
clean  wide-mouthed  glass  or  stone  jars,  of  the  capacity  of  half 
a  gallon,  fitted  with  sound  new  corks  or  glass  stoppers.  One 
of  these  should  contain  only  the  stomach  and  the  intestines; 
or,  if  only  a  portion,  the  upper  third,  together  with  the  csecum 
and  rectum.  None  of  the  other  viscera  should  be  placed  in 
the  same  jar,  lest,  by  imbibition,  these  might  become  contam- 
inated with  the  poison  in  the  stomach,  and  so  lead  to  a  wrong 
inference  in  relation  to  absorbed  poison  (see  supra,  p.  40).  The 
second  jar  may  contain  portions  of  the  liver  and  lungs,  spleen, 
heart,  kidney,  and  the  urinary  bladder.  It  is  very  important 
to  avoid  putting  any  antiseptic  liquid  into  these  jars.  Even 
pure  alcohol,  or  chloroform,  allowed  by  some  authorities,  is, 
at  times,  objectionable,  as,  for  example,  where  phosphorus  is 
to  be  looked  for.  The  jars  should  then  be  securely  corked, 
avoiding  the  use  of  sealing-wax  (which  contains  some  min- 
eral ingredient),  but  fastened  by  tying  over  the  corks  a  piece 
of  moistened  bladder,  or  parchment;  after  which  they  are  to 
be  properly  sealed  up,  and  kept  under  lock  and  key,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  their  being  injured,  or  in  any  way 
being  tampered  with. 


INSPECTION    OF   THE    BODY.  65 

The  importance  of  receiving  the  stomach,  etc.,  into  a  per- 
fectly clean  vessel  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  the 
showing  that  this  vessel  was  not  perfectly  clean,  at  the  trial, 
would  be  sufficient  to  destroy  all  the  chemical  testimony, 
however  conclusive  this  may  be  as  to  the  discovery  of  poison. 
This  is  well  illustrated  in  a  case  communicated  to  the  author 
by  Prof.  R.  Bridges,  of  Philadelphia,  which  occurred  to  him- 
self. In  a  case  of  suspected  arsenic-poisoning,  the  stomach, 
etc.,  were  carelessly  thrown  into  an  old  tin  can  that  had 
formerly  contained  zinc  paint,  before  being  sent  to  the  an- 
alyst, lie  discovered  zinc  in  the  viscera,  and  was  at  a  loss 
to  account  for  its  presence,  until  he  ascertained  the  above 
fact. 

For  a  similar  reason,  the  jars,  with  their  contents,  should 
be  guarded  with  scrupulous  care,  lest  it  become  impossible 
to  vouch  for  their  identity  at  the  approaching  trial.  A  great 
point  with  the  defense  at  such  a  trial,  is  to  disprove,  if  pos- 
sible, the  identity  of  the  materials  operated  upon  by  the 
chemist.  A  singular  case  of  this  character  was  tried  at. 
Leesburg,  Va.,  in  1872  (State  of  Virginia  vs.  Mrs.  E.  E. 
Lloyd),  where  a  woman  was  accused  of  poisoning  her  chil- 
dren with  arsenic.  It  appeared  in  evidence,  that  the  person 
who  had  been  intrusted  to  carry  the  jar  containing  the 
stomach  to  the  chemist,  in  a  distant  city,  had  died  in  the  in- 
terim before  the  trial ;  and  there  was  no  one  who  could  swear 
to  the  identity  of  the  stomach  operated  on  by  the  chemist, 
who  declared  that  he  had  extracted  from  the  stomach  several 
grains  of  arsenic  !  The  court  very  properly  ruled  out  the 
whole  of  the  chemical  evidence  in  relation  to  the  stomach, 
just  for  the  loss  of  this  one  link  in  the  chain. 

The  contents  of  the  stomach  should  be  collected  in  a  clean, 
graduated  vessel,  and  their  quantity,  color,  odor,  consistence,  etc., 
carefully  noted.  The  condition  of  the  rectum,  and  of  the 
genital  organs  of  the  female,  should  be  inspected;  the  pres- 
ence of  hardened  fteces  in  the  rectum  would  show  that  purg- 
ing had  not  existed  shortly  before  death, — a  circumstance 
which  of  itself  would  go  far  to  disprove  that  death  had  re- 
sulted from  an' irritant  metallic  poison,  as  arsenic,  corrosive 
or  tartar  emetic.  It  may  be  well  also  to  reniem- 


66  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

her  that  arsenic  has  been  introduced  into  the  vagina  with 
a  murderous  intent. 

One  other  point  should  not  be  forgotten,  namely,  to  ex- 
amine all  the  important  organs  for  marks  of  natural  disease, 
and  to  note  down  any  unusual  pathological  conditions,  even 
though,  at  the  time,  these  may  not  seem  to  bear  on  the 
question  of  poisoning. 

In  the  subsequent  examination  of  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
after  noticing  any  odor,  as  indicating  the  presence  of  alcohol, 
phosphorus,  prussic  acid,  opium,  etc.  (slightly  warming  the 
organic  matter,  if  necessary,  for  this  purpose),  each  portion 
of  the  intestinal  canal  should  be  in  turn  spread  out  upon  a 
clean  sheet  of  window-glass,  with  the  internal  surface  out- 
wards. The  entire  surface  should  then  be  carefully  exam- 
ined, first  with  the  naked  eye,  and  afterwards  with  a  lens; 
every  abnormal  appearance  should  be  noted  and  described  ; 
all  suspicious  particles  or  powder  should  be  collected  and 
examined ;  such  portions  as  present  the  most  marked  ap- 
pearances may  then  be  removed,  and  spread  out  upon  a 
glass  slide  and  placed  under  the  microscope.  By  this  means, 
very  satisfactory  proof  may  often  be  obtained  of  the  presence 
of  certain  kinds  of  food,  of  certain  poisonous  vegetable  seeds, 
leaves,  chlorophyl,  woody  fibre,  the  characteristic  granules  of 
the  different  varieties  of  fecula,  the  spores  of  mushrooms,  etc. 
A  striking  illustration  of  the  importance  of  such  a  minute  ex- 
amination is  mentioned  by  Tardieu  (Sur  PEmpoisonnement, 
p.  68).  A  child  twelve  years  of  age  died  at  school,  after  ten 
hours  of  acute  suffering,  on  the  day  on  which  its  stepmother 
had  brought  it  several  good  things  to  eat.  Among  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  were  discovered  some  fragments  of 
bread,  which,  when  examined  by  the  microscope,  were  found 
covered  with  a  fungous  growth,  showing  that  the  bread  was 
mouldy.  This  fact  was  noted  down,  but  no  importance  was 
attached  to  it  till,  at  the  trial,  one  of  the  witnesses,  a  servant  of 
the  stepmother,  stated  that  her  mistress  was  in  the  habit  of 
carrying  to  the  child  slices  of  bread  and  jam  ;  but  that  on  the 
day  of  the  death  she  said  that  she  could  not  take  it,  because 
the  bread  was  mouldy,  and  had  been  so  for  several  days. 

In  conclusion,  a  judicial  exhumation  and  examination  of  a 


EVIDENCE   FROM    CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS.  67 

body  suspected  to  have  been  poisoned  should  never  be  made 
except  in  the  presence  of  the  properly  qualified  officer — the 
coroner,  and  always  in  the  presence  of  some  representative 
of  the  prisoner,  and  of  the  defense;  otherwise,  the  matter 
assumes  very  much  an  ex  parte  character,  and  the  State's 
expert  who  conducts  it  must  necessarily  be  exposed  to  an 
unpleasant  suspicion  of  not  dealing  fairly  with  the  material 
examined.  At  any  rate,  we  think  it  safest  and  best  to  avoid 
all  such  imputations,  by  having  an  expert  for  the  defense 
present  at  the  examination.  An  opposite  course  is  calculated 
to  create  an  unfounded  suspicion  against  even  honorable  men, 
who  may  unwittingly  lend  themselves  to  it. 


SECTION  IV. 

EVIDENCE  FROM  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. — CAUSES  OF  FAILURE  IN  THE 
CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. — OBJECTS  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. — PRECAU- 
TIONS TO  BE  OBSERVED. — ACCURACY  OF  THE  ANALYSIS. — IMPURITIES  IN 
REAGENTS. 

III.  The  actual  detection  of  the  poison  by  means  of  chemical 
analysis  is  generally  regarded  by  the  popular  mind  as  afford- 
ing the  most  satisfactory  and  positive  evidence  of  poisoning. 
Indeed,  the  idea  has  been  very  prevalent  that  the  charge  of 
poisoning  can  never  be  made  out,  without  the  actual  produc- 
tion of  the  poison  as  the  corpus  delicti.  This  is,  however,  an 
error.  All  that  the  law  requires  is  satisfactory  proof  that  the 
person  has  died  from  poison.  It  does  not  prescribe  the  means 
by  which  this  proof  is  to  be  arrived  at.  The  question  then  is — 
can  satisfactory  proof  be  established  without  the  chemical 
detection  of  the  poison  ?  The  reply  to  this  inquiry  is,  that  it 
unquestionably  can  be,  in  certain  cases.  There  are  certain 
poisons  that  cannot,  at  present,  be  detected  by  chemical 
analysis ;  such  are  some  of  those  derived  from  the  vegetable 
and  animal  kingdoms,  as  the  cananthe  crocata,  the  laburnum, 
the  poisonous  fungi,  the  woorara,  poisonous  cheese  and  meat, 
the  poison  of  rabies,  of  glanders,  of  snakes,  etc. ;  yet  all 
these  can  produce  most  violent,  and  often  fatal,  effects.  It 
would  be,  as  Dr.  Taylor  well  remarks,  a  most  dangerous  and 
fallacious  doctrine  to  affirm  that  no  case  of  poisoning  can  be 


68  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

proved  without  the  actual  detection  of  the  alleged  poison 
by  chemistry.  If  this  were  true,  many  notorious  murderers 
would  be  allowed  to  escape  the  hands  of  justice.  The  truth 
is,  that  the  fact  of  poisoning  can  often  be  made  out  by  physi- 
ological and  pathological  evidence,  conjoined  with  strong 
moral  proof,  without  the  additional  aid  of  chemistry.  In 
many  celebrated  criminal  cases,  conviction  has  ensued  in  the 
absence  of  all  chemical  proof.  We  need  only  mention,  among 
many  others,  the  cases  of  Donellan,  Castaing,  and  Palmer  as 
illustrations.  In  none  of  these  instances  was  the  poison  found 
in  the  body  of  the  deceased,  yet  in  all  the  "  satisfactory 
proof,"  which  the  law  requires,  was  obtained  from  other 
sources,  and  conviction  followed. 

It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  extreme  importance  to  ascer- 
tain precisely  the  position  which  the  chemical  proof  occupies 
in  the  chain  of  evidence  required  to  establish  the  charge  of 
poisoning.  "We  say,  then,  that  if  the  other  factors  of  evidence 
— the  symptoms,  the  pathological  appearances,  the  poisonous 
effects  of  the  suspected  material  on  living  animals,  and  the 
moral  proofs — all  coincide,  the  chemical  analysis  is  not  required 
to  substantiate  the  charge.  Nor  is  this  doctrine  opposed  to 
what  was  before  said  in  reference  to  the  insufficiency  of 
proof,  either  from  the  symptoms  alone,  or  from  the  post- 
mortem signs  alone,  or  even  from  both  combined;  inas- 
much as  these,  unless  supported  by  the  strongest  moral 
proof,  such  as  purchase  and  possession  of  the  poison,  motive, 
conduct  before  and  after  the  victim's  death,  etc.,  can  merely 
establish  a  probability  of  poisoning.  "When,  however,  the 
other  branches  of  evidence  fail,  or  are  imperfect,  if  the  chem- 
ical analysis  is  unsatisfactory,  an  acquittal  must  follow."? 
(Taylor,  On  Poisons,  p.  172.)  But  on  the  other  hand,  even 
if,  under  these  circumstances,  the  analysis  distinctly  re- 
veals the  presence  of  poison,  it  simply  declares  the  fact  of 
its  presence :  it  does  not  necessarily  prove  that  it  was  the 
cause  of  death.  Indeed,  in  the  entire  absence  of  the  usual 
symptoms,  pathological  changes,  and  moral  proofs,  the  chemi- 
cal detection  of  a  poison  may  rather  justify  the  suspicion  that 
this  had  been  secretly  introduced  into  the  body  after  death, 
for  a  sinister  purpose.  (See  ante,  p.  40.) 


EVIDENCE   FROM    CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  69 

Whilst,  then,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  admit  that  there  are 
cases  of  poisoning  which  can  be  "  satisfactorily  proved," 
even  in  the  absence  of  all  chemical  evidence,  we  would  not 
be  understood  as  in  any  way  disparaging  or  underrating  the 
importance  of  a  thorough  chemical  analysis.  When  this 
demonstrates  the  presence  of  a  poison,  it  exhibits  a  positive 
and  sufficient  means  of  death,  with  the  proviso  just  mentioned, 
that  the  poison  could  not  have  been  introduced  into  the  body 
after  death.  It  is  usually  considered  the  most  satisfactory 
evidence  of  the  crime,  by  both  court  and  jury. 

Orfila  evidently  lays  great  stress  upon  the  chemical  analysis 
as  an  important  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence.  He  says, — 
speaking  of  the  respective  value  of  symptoms,  morbid 
lesions,  and  the  chemical  analysis  in  a  case  of  poisoning, 
and  assigning  a  paramount  importance  to  the  latter, — "  Sup- 
pose twenty  persons  to  be  poisoned  by  arsenic :  in  every 
one  of  them  the  presence  of  the  poison  is  proven  by  the 
analysis,  whilst  the  symptoms  experienced,  and  the  post- 
mortem appearances  presented,  differ  widely  in  their  char- 
acter. In  one,  the  sickness  resembles  Asiatic  cholera; 
another,  several  hours  after  swallowing  the  poison,  is  sud- 
denly attacked  by  syncope,  without  any  precursory  symp- 
tom, and  dies ;  later,  some  will  be  found  affected  with 
pustules  on  the  skin,  delirium,  faintings,  articular  pains, 
abundant  and  repeated  vomitings,  etc.,  while  others  exhibit 
only  a  few  of  these  symptoms,  or  else  all  of  them  in  a  very 
slight  degree.  And  as  to  the  lesions,  in  one  case  we  will  find 
ecchymoses  in  the  alimentary  canal,  with  several  ulcers,  and 
possibly  perforation ;  in  another,  a  bright,  uniform,  and  ex- 
tended redness;  in  still  another,  a  simple  injection  of  the 
membrane;  and  in  some  others  even  this  may  be  wanting." 
His  conclusion  is,  that  the  diagnosis  cannot  be  made  out 
by  the  symptoms  and  morbid  lesions  combined,  without  the 
aid  of  the  chemical  analysis  (loc.  tit.,  p.  11). 

The  great  value  of  chemical  evidence  is  seen  in  the  detec- 
tion of  poisons  in  bodies  many  months,  or  even  years,  after 
death,  when  all  appearances  are  destroyed  by  putrefaction, 
and  also  in  the  excreta  (the  urine  particularly)  of  the  living. 
In  the  absence,  or  failure,  of  the  chemical  evidence,  in  an 


70  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

alleged  case  of  poisoning,  we  think  that  the  proofs  derived 
from  the  other  sources  should  be  so  positive  and  unequivocal 
as  not  to  admit  of  the  shadow  of  a  doubt. 

Causes  of  failure  in  the  chemical  analysis. — These  are  as 
follows :  1.  The  nature  of  the  poison  itself:  no  chemical  test 
may  have  yet  been  discovered  for  it.  As  already  remarked, 
this  is  especially  true  of  certain  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances of  a  poisonous  nature.  As  a  rule,  the  inorganic 
poisons  admit  of  comparatively  easy  detection,  in  the  hands 
of  an  expert  chemist.  Some  poisons  are  of  an  exceedingly 
volatile  nature :  they  rapidly  disappear  from  the  body,  by 
evaporation.  This  is  the  case  with  prussic  acid,  alcohol, 
nicotine,  chloroform,  etc. :  so  that  a  chemical  examination 
made  a  few  hours  after  death,  may  entirely  fail  to  discover 
a  trace  of  them. 

2.  Loss  by  vomiting  and  purging. — It  is  evident  that  even  a 
large  dose  of  poison  may  be  entirely  expelled  from  the 
stomach  and  bowels  by  vomiting  and  purging,  provided 
these  occur  soon  after  swallowing  it.  jN'umerous  cases  are  on 
record  where,  from  this  cause,  there  was  an  entire  failure  to 
discover  the  poison  after  death,  although  this  took  place  with 
the  usual  rapidity.  Generally,  however,  when  the  poison 
has  been  taken  in  the  solid  state,  as  in  powder,  more  or  less 
of  it  remains  closely  adherent  to  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
stomach,  where  it  can  be  easily  identified.  If  the  vomiting 
and  purging  have  not  been  excessive,  and  life  has  not  been 
prolonged  over  two  or  three  days,  a  portion,  at  least,  of  an 
irritant  poison  ought  to  be  found  in  the  stomach.  The  exact 
period  when  the  whole  of  a  poison  disappears  from  the 
stomach  by  vomiting  is  subject  to  much  variation.  Chris- 
tison  mentions  two  cases  of  poisoning  by  arsenic,  which 
proved  fatal  in  five  hours,  after  much  vomiting;  in  one  of 
which  no  poison  could  be  detected,  and  in  the  other  only  a 
fifteenth  of  a  grain  could  be  found.  In  two  other  instances 
of  like  poisoning,  in  which  death  ensued  in  eight  hours  after 
swallowing  one  and  two  ounces  respectively,  not  a  trace  of 
the  poison  was  discovered  in  the  stomach.  On  the  other  hand, 
Orfila  mentions  a  case  in  which,  after  incessant  vomiting  for 
two  entire  days,  arsenic  was  detected  in  the  contents  of  the 


ELIMINATION   OF    POISONS.  71 

stomach.  Prof.  Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  37)  dis- 
covered forty-two  grains  of  arsenic  in  the  stomach  of  a  person 
who  had  been  vomiting  almost  incessantly  for  thirty-two  hours. 

3.  Loss  by  absorption  and  elimination. — Attention  has  already 
been  directed  to  the  rapidity  with  which  poisonous  substances 
are  removed  from  the  stomach  by  absorption  (ante,  p.  26). 
Hence  it  often  happens  that,  after  death  from  poisoning, 
even  though  there  may  have  been  no  vomiting,  the  analyst 
may  not  be  able  to  discover  a  trace  of  the  poison  in  the 
stomach.  This  is  especially  apt  to  be  the  case  where  the 
dose  was  not  excessive,  and  where  death  did  not  ensue  very 
rapidly.  In  the  year  1861  I  examined  the  stomach  and 
intestines  of  a  woman  who  survived  six  hours  after  swallow- 
ing nearly  six  grains  of  stn-chnia.  The  most  careful  and 
repeated  analyses  by  Stas'  process  failed  to  reveal  a  trace  of 
the  poison,  either  by  the  color-test,  or  by  the  bitter  taste  of 
the  extract.  Sir  R.  Christison  failed  to  detect  morphia  in 
the  stomach  of  a  person  poisoned  by  taking  two  ounces 
of  laudanum,  although  death  occurred  in  five  hours  (On 
Poisons,  p.  697). 

The  elimination  of  the  absorbed  poison  from  the  different 
organs  of  the  body,  as  we  have  already  seen,  commences 
almost  immediately  after  its  ingestion  ;  but  the  time  required 
for  the  complete  elimination  varies  extremely,  both  for  dif- 
ferent poisons,  and  for  the  same  poison  under  different  cir- 
cumstances. Thus,  according  to  Orfila,  the  period  for  the 
total  expulsion  of  arsenic  from  the  human  body  by  elimina- 
tion is  about  fifteen  days;  nevertheless,  arsenic  has  been 
found  in  the  urine  as  late  as  the  twenty-first  day  after  the 
cessation  of  its  administration.  From  this  it  follows,  that, 
in  case  of  death  from  arsenic,  if  the  deceased  survived  fif- 
teen or  sixteen  days,  there  would  be  no  probability  of  discov- 
ering a  trace  of  the  poison,  either  in  the  stomach,  or  in  any 
of  the  organs.'  Doubtless,  in  numerous  cases,  the  period  of 
elimination  is  much  shorter  than  the  one  just  mentioned,  as, 
for  example,  where  the  dose  has  been  only  just  large  enough 
to  cause  death ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  poison- 
ing, the  doses  are  excessive,  the  symptoms  violent,  and  the 
death  rapid :  so  that  there  is  usually  little  difficulty  for  the 


72  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

chemist  to  detect  the  poison,  both  in  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  and  in  the  organs.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
mineral  poisons;  vegetable  poisons  (alkaloids),  although  un- 
doubtedly absorbed  into  the  blood,  like  the  others,  have  very 
rarely  been  detected  in  the  organs. 

4.  Decomposition  of  the  poison  in  the  blood,  or  during  its  elimi- 
nation from  the  system. — It  would  appear  from  the  difficulty 
that  attends  the  detection  of  certain  poisons  after  death, — 
more  especially  those  of  the  organic  kingdom, — that  they 
probably  undergo  some   chemical  alteration  in  the  living 
body,  which  renders  them  insusceptible  to  the  action  of  the 
usual  reagents.     This  seems  particularly  true  in  the  case  of 
opium,  and  it  has  also  been  suggested  as  belonging  to  strych- 
nia.    In  a  former  chapter  (p.  32)  proofs  were  adduced  of  the 
fact  that  many  substances  do  undergo  decomposition  while 
passing  through  the  circulation.     The  non-detection  of  most 
of  the  organic  poisons  in  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the  bodies 
of  persons  killed  by  these  substances,  furnishes  a  very  plausi- 
ble argument  in  favor  of  their  chemical  decomposition  in  the 
blood.    In  relation  to  the  inorganic  poisons — the  mineral  es- 
pecially— this  change  is  much  less  likely  to  occur:  probably  it 
never  occurs  except  as  the  result  of  post-mortem  putrefaction. 

5.  Decomposition,  and  loss  of  the  poison  in  the  dead  body. — It 
cannot  be  doubted  that  during  the  putrefactive  changes  which 
occur  after  death,  some  poisons  may  become  altered,  and  even 
entirely  disappear.     Such  a  change  would  be  most  naturally 
expected  in  the  organic  poisons.    With  regard  to  the  mineral 
poisons,  although  they  may  undergo  chemical  transformation 
after  death,  the  metal  is  indestructible :  accordingly,  it  may 
be  found  in  some  new  combination.     Thus,  arsenious  acid 
after  a  time  is  transformed  into  the  yellow  sulphide,  through 
the  agency  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  product  of  putre- 
faction.    The  salts  of  iron  are,  by  the  same  agent,  along 
with  ammonia,  converted  into  the  black  sulphide.    Corrosive 
sublimate,  by  the  same  means  also,  changes  into  the  black 
sulphide.      Among   the   organic   poisons,   cantharides   and 
strychnia  appear  to  possess  remarkable  powers  of  resistance 
to  putrefaction. 

The  above  reasons  are  amply  sufficient  to  account  for  the 


OBJECTS    OF   THE   CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  73 

failure  of  chemical  analysis  to  detect  many  poisons  in  the 
body  after  death.  But  in  every  case  of  alleged  poisoning — 
fatal  or  otherwise — where  there  has  been  a  failure  of  chemi- 
cal proof,  the  prosecution  must  be  prepared  to  account  satis- 
factorily for  this  failure;  or  else  it  will  very  materially  aid  in 
the  acquittal  of  the  accused. 

Objects  of  the  chemical  analysis. — These  are:  1.  To  ascertain 
the  nature  of  the  poison,  and  the  probable  quantity  admin- 
istered. If  the  analysis  should  discover  a  different  poison 
from  the  one  mentioned  in  the  indictment,  this  is  not  thereby 
vitiated.  The  quantity  administered  can  hardly  ever  be  de- 
termined more  than  approximately ;  but  as  close  an  estimate 
as  possible  should  be  made  by  a  careful  weighing,  or  measur- 
ing, of  the  solid  or  liquid  material  submitted  for  analysis. 
The  malicious  intention  of  a  prisoner  may  often  be  inferred 
from  the  quantity  of  poison  discovered  in  the  substance 
administered.  For  instance,  if  but  a  few  grains  of  oxalic  acid 
were  detected  in  a  large  quantity  of  some  drink,  a  conviction 
for  an  attempt  to  poison  would  hardly  follow,  since  so  small 
a  quantity  would  be  harmless;  but  if  a  large  quantity  of  this 
acid  were  discovered,  the  motive  of  the  act  would  be  apparent. 

There  is  a  very  common  fallacy  connected  with  the  quan- 
tity of  poisqn  found  in  the  stomach  after  death,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made  (ante,  p.  26):  the  question  is 
constantly  put  to  the  witness  on  a  trial,  whether  the  quantity 
found  in  the  stomach  was  sufficient  to  cause  death?  The 
proper  answer  to  this  question  is  that  the  poison  found  in 
the  stomach — whether  in  large  or  small  quantity — has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  the  fatal  result:  it  is  merely  the  surplus 
of  that  which  has  been  the  real  cause  of  death.  Hence,  to 
argue  that,  because  only  a  very  small  amount  of  a  poison  has 
been  discovered  in  the  stomach  (which  amount  was  insuffi- 
cient to  cause  death  in  another  person),  therefore  the  deceased 
could  not  have  been  poisoned,  would  be  a  most  serious  error. 
As  has  been  already  explained,  death  may  result  from  poison, 
and  not  a  particle  of  it  be  discovered  in  the  stomach  after- 
wards, simply  because  it  has  either  been  all  removed  by 
vomiting,  or  else  (unless  the  dose  was  excessive)  it  has  all 
disappeared  by  absorption.  This  principle  concerning  the 


74  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

residual  poison  found  in  the  stomach  after  death,  cannot  be 
too  thoroughly  understood. 

In  case  the  poison  discovered,  either  in  the  stomach,  or  in 
the  absorbed  state,  be  in  very  small  quantity,  it  may  always 
be  plausibly  urged  by  the  defense  that  it  was  either  accident- 
ally introduced,  or  else  had  been  taken  medicinally.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  presence  of  a  very  large  quantity  might  sug- 
gest the  idea  of  suicide,  rather  than  of  homicide,  since  it 
might  seem  to  indicate  a  deliberate  and  determined  purpose 
on  the  part  of  the  deceased,  and  to  be  inconsistent  with  the 
theory  of  homicide.  But  caution  should  be  observed  in 
relation  to  such  an  admission,  especially  in  connection  with 
arsenic,  since  a  case  of  murder  has  been  recorded  by  Sir  R. 
Christison,  in  which  nearly  one  hundred  grains  of  arsenic 
were  found  in  the  stomach  after  death.  In  the  celebrated 
case  of  Madeline  Smith,  tried  for  poisoning  L'Angelier  with 
arsenic  (Ed.  Court  of  Just.,  July,  1857),  the  defense  made  a 
very  strong  point  in  the  fact  that  eighty-eight  grains  of  arsenious 
acid  were  discovered  in  the  stomach  of  the  deceased — an 
amount  up  to  that  time  unheard  of  in  a  case  of  homicide, 
and  therefore  one  which  justified  rather  the  idea  of  suicide. 

2.  Another  important  object  of  the  chemical  analysis  is 
to  discover  the  administrator.  This  is  often  accomplished  by 
a  careful  analysis  of  certain  implements,  articles  of  food, 
clothing,  cups,  etc.  The  discovery  of  poison  in  connection 
with  these  may  lead  to  the  identification  of  the  true  culprit. 
(See  Taylor,  On  Poisons,  p.  188,  for  some  striking  illustra- 
tions.) 

Certain  precautions  to  be  observed  in  performing  the  analysis. — 
Before  commencing  this,  it  is  desirable  that  the  toxicologist 
should  inform  himself,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  nature  of  the 
symptoms  and  (in  a  fatal  case)  of  the  post-mortem  appear- 
ances observed  in  the  suspected  case.  Such  a  knowledge 
will  generally  serve  at  least  to  put  him  on  the  proper  track, 
by  indicating  to  what  particular  class  of  poisons  he  should 
direct  his  researches.  If,  for  instance,  the  symptoms  clearly 
indicated  one  of  the  irritant  poisons,  the  analyst  would 
save  himself  much  labor  by  first  directing  his  examination 
in  that  particular  line,  without  making  an  indiscriminate 


ACCURACY  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS.         75 

search  for  poisons.  For  the  same  reason,  if  the  symptoms 
had  been  clearly  those  of  a  neurotic  poison,  his  investiga- 
tions should  first  be  directed  to  that  especial  class. 

It  is  a  good  rule  to  observe  in  the  analysis  of  complex 
organic  materials,  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  the  liquid,  by 
evaporation,  to  the  smallest  bulk  compatible  with  the  appli- 
cation of  the  tests  to  be  applied.  No  doubt,  a  failure  to  detect 
the  poison  is  often  dependent  upon  a  disregard  of  this  very 
precaution,  since  a  very  small  quantity  of  a  poison  diffused 
through  a  large  amount  of  material  may  fail  to  be  recog- 
nized by  the  appropriate  tests  ;  whereas,  if  properly  concen- 
trated, it  would  have  been  detected.  Again,  the  action  of 
chemical  reagents  is  more  or  less  modified  by  the  quantity 
employed.  In  some  instances,  a  very  slight  excess  of  the 
reagent  may  entirely  prevent  the  formation  of  a  precipitate 
which  would  otherwise  appear.  On  the  other  hand,  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  quantity  of  the  reagent  may  materially  modify 
the  result :  thus,  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
produces,  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  a  white  pre- 
cipitate; while  a  large  amount  of  this  gas  will  occasion  a 
black- colored  deposit;  and  an  intermediate  quantity  will 
produce  a  red  precipitate. 

Accuracy  of  the  analysis. — In  order  to  secure  accuracy  of 
result  in  the  chemical  analysis,  several  things  are  necessary : 
1.  To  employ  only  a  portion  —  usually  one-half — of  the  ma- 
terial to  be  operated  on ;  the  other  portion  is  kept  in  reserve, 
in  case  of  accident,  or  for  subsequent  experiments.  2.  The 
experimenter  should  never  be  satisfied  with  the  result  ob- 
tained from  a  single  test,  or  from  a  single  line  of  testing. 
The  suspected  substance  ought  to  respond  to  every  known 
test,  or  the  reason  for  its  not  doing  so  should  be  distinctly 
explained.  Thus,  in  testing  for  prussic  acid,  the  analyst  is 
not  justified  in  stating,  as  was  done  in  the  Schoeppe  case, 
that  this  poison  was  present,  simply  because  "faint  traces" 
were  observed  by  the  application  of  only  two  out  of  the  four 
recognized  tests  for  this  substance,  and  one  of  these  (the 
iron-test)  very  doubtful,  inasmuch  as  no  actual  precipitate  of 
Prussian  blue  took  place,  but  only  "a  bluish  coloration." 
"We  think  it  is  the  duty  of  the  toxicologist  always  to  employ 


76  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  various  corroborative  tests,  no  matter  how  superfluous 
this  may  appear  in  his  own  judgment ;  by  omitting  to  do  this, 
his  otherwise  excellent  evidence  may  be  materially  weakened. 

In  all  cases  of  poisoning  by  the  metallic  compounds  (ar- 
senic, antimony,  mercury,  copper,  etc.),  we  deem  it  essential 
to  obtain  the  metal;  and  that,  too,  in  such  quantity  as  to  enable 
it  to  be  subjected  to  all  the  corroborative  tests.  Fortunately 
for  the  ends  of  justice,  this  can  generalty  be  accomplished 
without  much  difficulty.  The  production  of  the  metal  in 
court,  together  with  the  recognized  results  obtained  by  its 
manipulation,  is  justly  regarded  as  the  very  strongest  chem- 
ical evidence  in  cases  of  alleged  poisoning  by  arsenic,  tartar 
emetic,  corrosive  sublimate,  etc.  There  is  more  or  less  fal- 
lacy in  most  of  the  other  chemical  proofs  usually  brought 
forward  in  cases  of  metallic  poisoning;  some  plausible  ob- 
jection may,  at  least,  be  urged  against  them,  under  different 
circumstances,  which  must  weaken  their  force  as  evidence ; 
whereas,  the  production  of  the  metal  in  tangible  quantity  is  a 
proof  that  cannot  be  set  aside.  It  should,  therefore,  always 
be  rigidly  insisted  on  in  criminal  trials. 

In  relation  to  the  necessity  for  obtaining  the  metal  in  cases 
of  metallic  poisoning,  which  we  have  so  strongly  insisted  on, 
it  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  Orfila  is  not  quite  in  accord 
with  M.  Devergie,  who  asserts  "  that  it  is  a  principle  in  legal 
medicine  that  admits  of  no  exception,  that  the  extraction  of  the 
metal  is  required  in  all  cases,  in  order  to  prove  the  presence  of 
a  metallic  poison."  Orfila,  in  reply,  asks  how  it  would  be 
possible  to  obtain  the  metal  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  the  salts 
of  potash,  soda,  baryta,  and  lime — all  of  which  have  a  metal- 
lic base.  He  then  proposes  the  question,  whether  the  sub- 
mitting a  suspected  salt  of  copper  to  all  the  well-recognized 
tests,  and  finding  it  to  respond  properly  to  all  these,  would 
not  be  in  effect  as  strong  a  proof  of  the  presence  of  copper  as 
the  production  of  the  metal  itself.  In  answer  to  the  above, 
we  would  say  that  in  speaking  of  metallic  poisons  the  phrase 
is  understood  to  apply  to  the  metals  proper,  and  not  to  the  metals 
of  the  alkalies,  earths,  or  alkaline  earths.  Orfila  himself 
subsequently  modifies  Devergie's  assertion,  so  as  to  admit 
the  necessity  of  isolating  the  rnetal,  in  cases  where  any  doubt 


FALLACY   OF   COLOR-TESTS.  77 

arises,  especially  from  the  presence  of  coloring-matters,  which 
might  obscure  the  precipitates.  (Toxicologie,  i.  pp.  6,  7,  8.) 

3.  Too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  on  the  mere 
colors  of  a  precipitate ;  and  this  for  several  substantial  rea- 
sons. In  the  first  place,  colors  are  not  always  seen  alike  by 
different  persons :  M.  Devergie  remarks  (Med.  Legale,  iii.  p. 
17)  that  "  nothing  is  so  deceitful  as  an  absolute  reliance  upon 
color  in  testing.  Four  persons  may  look  at  the  same  colored 
product,  and  it  will  be  found  to  present  to  each  a  different 
shade  or  tint."  Many  illustrations  of  this  might  be  adduced. 
In  1817,  Donnall  was  tried  for  poisoning  his  mother-in-law 
with  arsenic.  The  chemical  tests  relied  upon  for  proving 
the  presence  of  this  poison  were  the  two  liquid  color-tests 
(the  ammonio-sulphate  of  copper  and  nitrate  of  silver),  which 
threw  down  from  the  boiled  contents  of  the  stomach  the 
appropriate  green  and  yellow-colored  precipitates.  This 
was  considered  conclusive  evidence;  and  a  conviction  of  the 
accused  would  certainly  have  followed,  if  it  had  not  been 
shown  by  another  medical  man  that  a  decoction  of  onions 
would  yield  with  the  above-named  tests  precisely  similar 
colored  precipitates!  (Beck's  Med.  Jurisp.,  ii.  p.  580.)  At  one 
time,  the  red  color  obtained  by  the  action  of  meconic  acid 
on  a  persalt  of  iron  was  considered  as  the  most  reliable  test 
for  the  presence  of  opium  ;  but  it  has  since-been  ascertained 
that  the  saliva  contains  a  principle  (sulpho-cyanide  of  potas- 
sium) which  gives  to  the  iron-salt  a  similar  color!  Dr. 
Taylor  alludes  to  a  case  where  morphia  was  believed  to 
have  been  eliminated  in  the  urine,  because  the  iodic  acid 
test  produced  with  the  latter  the  characteristic  reaction ;  but 
it  was  subsequently  ascertained  that  uric  acid  and  urate  of 
ammonia  (constituents  of  healthy  urine)  will  give  precisely 
the  same  reaction.  (On  Poisons,  p.  193.)  Even  the  well- 
known  and  characteristic  color-test  of  strychnia,  which  is 
not  imitated  by  any  other  known  substance,  should  not  be 
exclusively  relied  upon  in  a  criminal  case,  but  ought  to  be 
corroborated  by  other  tests. 

In  employing  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  test  for  the  me- 
tallic poisons,  it  is  the  color  of  the  precipitate  which  is  gen- 
erally considered  so  characteristic  as  a  result.  Now,  when  the 

6 


78  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

experiment  is  made  with  perfectly  pure  solutions  of  the  metallic 
salts,  the  color  of  the  precipitated  sulphide  may  be  accepted 
as  a  good  criterion  ;  but  in  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  with 
which  the  mineral  poison  must  necessarily  be  associated 
when  extracted  from  a  human  body,  it  should  never  be  for- 
gotten that  this  test  cannot  be  relied  on  exclusively;  for,  in 
the  first  place,  the  presence  of  organic  matter  will  more  or 
less  mask  the  true  color  of  the  precipitate;  and  secondly, 
there  are  certain  kinds  of  organic  matter,  combined  with 
coloring  materials,  which,  without  the  presence  of  any  me- 
tallic salt,  in  an  acid,  or  even  in  a  neutral  solution,  will  yield 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  colored  precipitates  bearing 
strong  resemblance  to  those  above  mentioned.  How  dan- 
gerous, then,  would  it  be,  in  a  medico-legal  case,  to  rely 
exclusively  upon  this  test  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  presence  of  a  metallic  poison !  As  if  the  more  clearly 
to  show  the  impropriety  of  this  partial  and  exclusive  mode 
of  dealing  with  the  metallic  poisons,  it  so  happens  that  this 
colored  precipitate  procured  from  complex  organic  material, 
and  containing  no  metallic  substance  whatever,  will  behave,  with 
the  usual  reagents,  in  a  manner  strikingly  similar  to  that 
which  has  been  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  metals.  (  Vide 
infra,  ARSENIC  and  ANTIMONY.) 

The  toxicologist  should  always  be  prepared  to  give  a 
positive  opinion  in  relation  to  the  results  of  his  analysis. 
Either  he  has,  or  has  not,  discovered  the  poison  alleged. 
The  certainty  of  this  result  in  no  wise  depends  upon  the 
quantity  found;  for  this  can  often  be  as  well  established  by  a 
fraction  of  a  grain,  as  by  a  pound,  of  the  substance, — we 
mean,  of  course,  the  mere  presence  of  the  poison.  The  ques- 
tion, how  the  presence  of  a  minute  quantity  of  a  poison  might 
be  satisfactorily  accounted  for,  is  quite  another  affair,  with 
which  the  analyst  has  no  concern.  The  witness  should 
avoid  the  use  of  such  expressions  as  "  feeble  traces"  or 
"  mere  traces"  of  poison,  since  these  indicate  a  doubt  in  his 
own  mind  of  the  presence  of  the  poison.  However  minute 
the  quantity  discovered  may  be,  there  should  not  be  the 
shadow  of  a  doubt  of  its  actual  presence.  If  he  has  really  any 
doubts  about  his  results,  he  ought  frankly  to  say  so. 


ACCURACY  OF   THE   CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  79 

One  or  two  other  points  require  consideration  here.  The 
analyst  should  not  forget  that  while  the  minutest  portion  of 
some  poisons — as  e.g.  the  one-hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain 
of  strychnia — may  be  detected  in  the  pure  state,  the  result  is 
very  different  if  it  is  mixed  with  complex  organic  matters : 
in  the  latter  case,  the  difficulty  of  discovering  it  is  vastly 
increased,  and  the  minimum  quantity  capable  of  detection 
becomes  very  considerably  augmented.  In  all  cases  where 
the  quantity  of  material  is  limited,  it  is  advisable  to  apply 
the  most  characteristic  test  first,  and  then  follow  with  the 
other  corroborative  tests,  as  before  mentioned.  To  draw  any 
positive  inferences  from  a  single  reaction  would  be  manifestly 
very  unsafe,  since  a  similar  reaction  is  often  produced  by  very 
different  substances.  For  example,  a  slip  of  bright  copper, 
if  boiled  in  a  hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  either  arsenic, 
mercury,  antimony,  or  of  several  other  metals,  and  indeed 
in  certain  complex  organic  solutions  acidified,  will  receive  a 
dark-colored  stain.  To  infer  the  presence  of  any  of  these 
metals,  or  indeed  of  any  metal,  from  this  one  single  reaction, 
would  be  a  most  serious  error:  a  second  experiment  is 
needed.  On  heating  the  dried  coated  copper  in  a  reduction- 
tube,  a  sublimate  of  octahedral  crystals  will  indicate  arsenic ; 
whilst  mercury  is  the  only  substance  that  will  yield  a  subli- 
mate of  metallic  globules ;  and  a  mere  amorphous  deposit  in 
the  tube  would  indicate  organic  matter.  A  third  experiment, 
performed  upon  these  deposits,  would  bring  out  the  proof 
with  still  greater  precision. 

The  great  leading  idea  that  ought  to  govern  the  toxicolo- 
gist  in  all  his  chemical  investigations  is,  not  to  see  with  how 
small  a  number  of  tests  he  can  prove  the  presence  of  the 
poison  sought  for,  but  rather,  how  many  different  tests  he  can 
adduce  to  prove  his  point.  I  have  known  a  veteran 
chemist  of  nearly  fifty  years'  experience  in  public  teaching, 
rather  boastfully  to  assert  on  the  witness-stand  that,  in 
making  an  analysis  for  poison,  in  a  capital  case,  if  he  had 
"  satisfied  himself"  of  its  presence  by  one  or  two  tests,  any 
further  experiments  were  quite  unnecessary.  It  did  not  seem 
to  occur  to  him  that  further  experiments  might  be  required 
for  the  purpose  of  "satisfying"  other  people ! 


80  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Poisonous  impurities  in  tests  and  apparatus. — One  of  the  most 
important  cautions  to  be  observed  by  the  toxicologist  in  his 
researches,  is  to  obtain  perfectly  pure  reagents — a  matter 
often  of  considerable  difficulty.  In  conducting  an  analysis 
in  a  poison-case,  where  the  question  of  life  or  death  may  be 
involved,  the  most  scrupulous  care  must  be  used  to  guard 
against  all  possibility  of  error  in  this  direction.  It  is  not 
sufficient  that  his  reagents  have  been  procured  from  stand- 
ard sources  and  are  marked  "  chemically  pure :"  before 
using  them,  the  analyst  should  each  time  test  them  for  him- 
self; otherwise  he  cannot  swear  positively  to  the  purity  of  his 
reagents.  Another  caution  just  here  may  not  be  amiss:  in 
these  delicate  manipulations,  the  analyst  should  avoid  using 
the  same  reagents,  bottles,  etc.,  which  he  is  accustomed  to 
employ  in  the  ordinary  experiments  of  his  laboratory  and 
class-room.  It  is  very  evident  that  in  the  latter  employment 
they  must  be  constantly  exposed  to  the  action  of  foreign  im- 
purities, in  the  form  of  vapors,  etc.,  and  also  be  liable  to 
constant  indiscriminate  handling.  The  rule  to  be  sedulously 
observed  is  to  guard  against  every  possibility  of  impurity. 

Very  many  of  our  ordinary  reagents  contain  impurities: 
sulphuric  acid  is  often  contaminated  with  arsenic  and  lead; 
hydrochloric  acid,  with  arsenic  and  antimony ;  nitric  acid, 
with  iron  and  sulphuric  acid;  zinc,  with  arsenic.  Solutions 
of  potash  and  soda  are  apt  to  contain  traces  of  lead  if  kept 
in  flint-glass  bottles;  lead  is  also  found  in  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, citric  acid,  tartaric  acid,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  etc.  A 
moment's  consideration  will  show  the  importance  of  atten- 
tion to  the  above  facts,  since  carelessness  or  ignorance  on 
the  part  of  the  analyst  might  thus  ledd  to  the  most  serious 
results. 

SECTION  V. 

EVIDENCE    DERIVED     FROM    EXPERIMENTS    ON     ANIMALS. — PHYSIOLOGICAL 

PROOF. 

IV.  In  certain  cases,  where  the  symptoms,  the  post-mortem 
lesions,  and  the  chemical  analysis  fail  to  establish  the  posi- 
tive proof  of  poisoning,  we  may  with  great  advantage  resort 
to  the  physiological  evidence,  or  that  derived  from  direct  ex- 


EVIDENCE   FROM    EXPERIMENTS   ON   ANIMALS.  81 

periments  on  living  animals.  The  animals  best  adapted  to 
this  purpose  are  the  dog,  the  cat,  and  the  rabbit — especially 
the  former;  and,  in  certain  cases,  the  frog.  Birds  are  par- 
ticularly unsuited  for  experiments  of  this  sort,  since  they 
are  affected  so  very  differently  from  man  and  the  animals 
just  mentioned.  The  exact  sort  of  information  obtained  by 
such  experiments  seems  to  be  limited  to  proving  the  fact  of 
poisoning:  we  can  gather  no  certain  data  from  them  relative 
to  the  dose,,  the  rapidity  of  absorption,  the  deposition  or  elimi- 
nation, in  reference  to  man.  We  may  also,  occasionally,  learn 
something  of  the  physiological  and  pathological  action  of 
poisons.  The  instances  of  the  remarkable  discrepancy  in  the 
dose  of  poisonous  substances  necessary  to  produce  death  in 
man  and  the  lower  animals,  are  numerous.  On  one  occasion, 
I  administered  to  a  dog,  subcutaneously,  fourteen  grains  of 
atropia,  in  divided  doses,  without  fatal  effect — a  result  that 
entirely  confirms  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Frazer  on  dogs 
and  rabbits.  Moreover,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  there 
are  some  poisons,  derived  chiefly  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, that  prove  quite  innocuous  to  certain  animals,  al- 
though very  dangerous  to  man  :  among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  datura  stramonium,  which  is  eaten  with  impunity 
by  cows  and  goats ;  the  rabbit  likewise  will  thrive  upon  the 
leaves  of  belladonna,  stramonium,  and  hyoscyamus. 

Important  evidence  of  this  kind  is  sometimes  accidentally 
obtained,  which  may  prove  valuable  as  confirmatory  proof 
of  the  administration  of  poison.  Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons, 
p.  196)  mentions  some  instructive  cases.  A  woman  poi- 
soned her  husband  with  arsenic  mixed  with  soup,  and  threw 
the  remains  of  the  meal  out  of  the  window  into  a  farm-yard, 
thinking  thus  to  get  entirely  rid  of  it.  It  happened  at  the 
time  that  a  pig  and  several  fowls  were  feeding  under  the 
window,  and  they  ate  up  the  food  as  it  fell  to  the  ground. 
The  whole  of  these  animals  died  under  symptoms  of  irritant 
poisoning.  The  husband  also  died;  no  poison  was  detected 
in  his  stomach,  although  there  were  traces  of  its  action ;  but 
on  opening  the  bodies  of  the  animals,  not  only  were  the  usual 
appearances  produced  by  irritant  poisons  found,  but  arsenic 
itself  was  also  readily  detected  in  the  viscera.  The  pris- 


82  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

oner  was  convicted  and  executed.  In  another  case,  it  was 
proved  that  the  prosecutor,  to  whom,  it  was  alleged,  the 
prisoner  had  given  arsenic,  went  out  into  a  back  yard  and 
vomited  the  food.  Some  fowls  near  the  spot  were  observed 
to  be  ill  during  the  day,  and  two  died.  The  prisoner  had,  in 
the  mean  time,  thrown  away  the  poisoned  food,  and  washed 
out  the  vessels  which  had  contained  it.  As  the  prosecutor 
recovered,  there  could  be  no  examination  of  his  body.  Ar- 
senic, however,  was  found  in  the  crops  of  the  chickens 
which  had  fed  at  the  spot  where  the  prosecutor  had  vomited, 
and  this  supplied  sufficient  proof  of  the  cause  of  his  illness. 
Sometimes  good  negative,  as  well  as  affirmative,  evidence, 
may  be  obtained  by  the  examination  of  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals alleged  to  have  been  poisoned.  A  case  in  point  is 
related,  where  a  woman  poisoned  her  uncle  with  arsenic. 
When  required  to  account  for  the  poison  that  was  found 
in  her  possession,  she  pretended  that  she  had  bought  it  for 
the  destruction  of  vermin,  and  actually  pointed  out  a  dead 
mouse,  in  corroboration  of  her  statement.  This  turned  out 
to  be  an  unfortunate  part  of  her  defense,  for  the  medical 
witness  showed  that  the  mouse  had  not  died  from  the  effects 
of  arsenic  (loc.  tit.}. 

Orfila,  who  devoted  considerable  attention  to  this  subject, 
and  made  numerous  experiments  upon  dogs  with  a  variety  of 
poisons,  gives  the  following  as  the  r&sumi  of  his  deductions: 
1.  "Physiological  experiments  are  unnecessary  where  the 
presence  of  the  poison  can  be  demonstrated  by  the  chemical 
analysis.  2.  "When  the  chemical  researches  are  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  there  remains  some  of  the  suspected  material  that 
has  not  been  operated  upon,  this  may  be  introduced  into  the 
stomach  of  a  dog,  and  its  effects  noticed.  3.  This  experi- 
ment ought  never  to  be  performed  with  the  material  that 
has  already  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  chemical  reagents, 
inasmuch  as  these  latter  might  vitiate  the  results.  4.  If  the 
suspected  matter  occasion  the  animal's  death,  before  con- 
cluding that  there  had  been  poisoning,  we  must  be  sure  that 
the  person,  in  whose  alimentary  canal  it  was  found,  had  not 
died  from  some  disease  in  consequence  of  which  the  animal 
fluids,  and  particularly  the  bile,  have  become  infected  and 


EVIDENCE   FROM   EXPERIMENTS   ON   ANIMALS.  83 

capable  of  producing  many  of  the  symptoms  of  poisoning. 
5.  In  case  the  animal  should  exhibit  no  very  decided  symp- 
toms as  the  result  of  swallowing  the  suspected  matter,  we 
have  no  right  to  conclude  from  this  single  experiment  that 
no  poisoning  had  existed,  since  there  may  be  many  reasons 
why  the  matters  found  in  the  stomach  and  bowels  of  a  person 
really  poisoned  should  not  prove  poisonous  to  the  animal : 
thus,  the  poison  may  have  been  decomposed  in  the  stomach 
by  the  food,  drinks,  or  by  the  animal  tissues,  and  even  may 
be  combined  with  them ;  for  example,  sixty  centigrammes 
of  corrosive  sublimate  were  swallowed  by  a  healthy  man ; 
symptoms  of  poisoning  were  brought  on,  and  death  followed ; 
the  body  was  opened  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours 
afterwards,  and  the  matters  found  in  the  digestive  canal 
were  given  to  a  dog,  which,  however,  experienced  no  bad 
effects  from  them.  This  has  very  frequently  occurred. 

"  It  is  evident  that,  in  the  case  just  mentioned,  the  corrosive 
sublimate  had  been  converted  by  the  alimentary  matters, 
and  even  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  into  an 
insoluble  substance,  which  exerted  no  noxious  influence  on 
the  animal  economy.  A  similar  result  may  happen  if  ver- 
digris (subacetate  of  copper)  is  taken  either  before  or  after 
swallowing  albumen,  and  some  other  animal  matters.  An- 
other reason  may  be  assigned:  the  poison,  although  in  large 
quantity,  may  have  been  expelled  by  vomiting,  and  death, 
nevertheless,  have  resulted :  in  such  a  case,  the  contents  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  being  freed  from  the  poisonous  matter, 
would  fail  to  occasion  the  death  of  the  animal  that  might 
swallow  them.  Again,  it  might  happen  that  the  poisonous 
substance  may  be  one  that  is  easily  absorbed ;  that  although 
the  deceased  may  have  taken  a  large  dose,  only  a  very  small 
portion  remained  in  the  stomach :  here,  the  negative  results 
obtained  by  the  experiment  on  a  dog,  would  lead  to  an  erro- 
neous conclusion."  (Toxicologie,  1852,  i.  pp.  52,  53.) 

Ortila  recommends  tying  the  oesophagus,  in  these  experi- 
ments ;  assigning  as  a  reason  the  great  difficulty  of  making 
the  animal  swallow  the  suspected  matters,  in  consequence 
of  his  resistance,  and  his  quickly  rejecting  them.  He  states, 
moreover,  that  in  the  attempt  it  will  happen  at  least  once 


84  MANUAL   OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

in  ten  times,  that  a  portion  of  the  material  will  flow  back 
into  the  larynx,  and  the  animal  will  perish  from  asphyxia 
(loc.  tit.). 

The  best  method  to  pursue,  if  the  suspected  material  is  in 
the  liquid  form,  is  to  detach  the  oesophagus  of  the  dog,  while 
fasting,  from  the  surrounding 'parts,  and  to  inject  the  liquid 
into  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  gum-elastic  tube  ;  then  to 
tie  the  tube,  and  so  to  leave  it  for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours.  If  the  material  is  too  thick  to  be  introduced  by  means 
of  the  tube,  the  oesophagus,  after  being  detached,  should  be 
pierced  with  a  small  opening,  a  glass  funnel  placed  in  the* 
opening,  and  the  matter  introduced  through  it.  The  cesopha- 
gus  should  then  be  tied  below  the  opening.  If  the  suspected 
matter  is  in  the  solid  form,  so  that  it  cannot  pass  through  a 
funnel,  it  should  be  inclosed  in  a  little  roll  of  tissue-paper, 
and  then  pushed  into  the  stomach,  through  the  opening 
made  in  the  oesophagus ;  and  then  this  tube  should  be  ligated 
as  before. 

Of  course,  the  main  object  of  tying  the  oesophagus,  in  these 
experiments,  is  to  prevent  the  animal  from  vomiting,  and  to 
insure  the  retention  of  the  substance  injected  sufficiently  long 
for  it  to  produce  its  usual  effects  upon  the  system.  Many 
objections  were  made  to  this  method  of  experimenting,  even 
in  Orfila's  time  ;  and  these  still  continue  to  be  urged,  though , 
we  think,  without  sufficient  grounds.  It  has  been  stated, 
for  instance,  that  the  operation  of  tying  the  oesophagus  is  a 
hazardous  one,  and  that  the  effects  ascribed  by  Orfila  to  the 
alleged  poison  were,  in  reality,  due  to  the  operation.  This 
objection  is  completely  refuted  by  Orfila  himself.  He  experi- 
mented over  fifty  times  on  dogs,  often  in  the  amphitheatre 
of  the  faculty,  in  the  presence  of  members  of  the  Academy  of 
Medicine,  and  with  the  most  positive  results.  As  he  rightly 
observes,  the  operation  must  be  performed  by  a  skillful  hand; 
in  which  case,  it'need  never  occupy  over  two  minutes.  The 
oesophagus  should  be  carefully  separated  from  all  its  attach- 
ments— trachea,  vessels,  and  nerves — and  then  tied.  When 
the  ligature  is  left  on  for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  the 
animals  merely  experience  a  slight  depression,  and  a  little 
fever;  as  soon  as  it  is  removed,  they  at  once  eat  and  drink, 


EVIDENCE   FROM    EXPERIMENTS   ON   ANIMALS.  85 

and  seem  perfectly  at  ease.  The  wound  heals  in  a  few  days, 
without  any  further  attention. 

From  the  experiments  of  Orfila,  I  think  the  following 
conclusions  warrantable:  (1)  Tying  the  oesophagus,  even  after 
first  opening  it,  occasions  during  the  first  two  days  merely  a 
slight  fever  and  depression,  incapable  of  causing  death  in 
that  length  of  time.  (2)  If  the  animal  be  killed  during  this 
time,  no  pathological  lesion  is  discoverable.  It  is  hence 
evident  that  if  an  animal,  caused  to  take  poison  a  short  time 
before  tying  his  oesophagus,  should  die  in  the  course  of  two 
days,  after  exhibiting  severe  symptoms,  such  as  vertigo,  con- 
vulsions, pain,  or  insensibility,  efforts  at  vomiting,  etc.,  the 
death  should  be  attributed  solely  to  the  poison  administered. 
"What  is  absolutely  confirmatory  of  this  proposition  is  the 
fact  that  if  another  animal,  whose  oesophagus  is  not  tied,  be 
made  to  swallow  an  equal  dose  of  the  sajue  poison  (and  do 
not  vomit  it),  he  will  exhibit  precisely  the  same  results. 
These  comparative  experiments  have  been  actually  'made  in 
the  case  of  strychnia,  camphor,  the  upas  tieute,  false  angus- 
tura  bark,  and  other  substances  that  were  not  vomited.  The 
inference,  then,  seems  irresistible  that  the  pathological 
changes  observed  in  animals  which  have  been  poisoned, 
whose  oesophagus  was  tied,  and  which  have  died  within  forty- 
eight  hours  after  the  operation,  should  be  attributed  only  to 
the  poisonous  substance;  since  the  operation  could  not  have 
occasioned  any  alteration,  except  merely  on  the  part  cut. 
Any  one  can  judge  of  the  effect  of  the  ligature  on  the  oeso- 
phagus of  all  the  animals  to  which  poison  was  administered, 
and  which  died  in  two,  four,  eight,  twelve,  or  twenty-four  hours 
after ;  inasmuch  as  they  comprise  at  least  seven-eighths  of 
those  operated  on. 

Whilst  it  may  happen,  in  cases  where  the  poison  acts  but 
feebly,  and  life  is  prolonged  for  several  days,  that  it  becomes 
difficult,  at  times,  to  discriminate  between  the  effects  of  the 
poison  and  those  of  the  operation,  such  a  difficulty  could 
never  happen  in  a  case  where  the  oesophagus  is  tied,  vnthout 
previously  opening  it.  It  is  for  this  reason,  chiefly,  that  the 
latter  operation  is  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  opening  the 
oesophagus  before  tying  it. 


86  MANUAL  OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

The  value  of  tine  frog-test  in  poisoning  by  strychnia  will  be 
more  fully  discussed  hereafter.  (See  STRYCHNIA,  post.) 

Gin  poison  be  introduced  into  the  human  system  through  the  body 
of  an  animal,  without  the  latter  being  affected  by  it? — This  is  an 
interesting  physiological  question ;  and  it  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  assume  an  important  practical  aspect,  as  where 
serious  symptoms  have  followed  the  eating  of  game  that  had 
fed  on  poisonous  vegetables.  The  rabbit,  for  example,  ac- 
cording to  M.  Runge,  of  Berlin,  will  eat,  and  thrive  upon, 
the  leaves  of  belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  and  stramonium ;  al- 
though, on  killing  the  animal,  the  absorbed  poisons  may  be 
discovered  in  its  body.  The  goat  and  cow  will  eat  the  leaves 
and  stalk  of  the  stramonium  with  perfect  impunity,  yet 
their  milk  may  prove  poisonous  to  those  who  drink  it.  One 
insect  at  least  is  known  that  can  feed  and  flourish  on  strych- 
nia. The  fact  is  undoubted  that,  while  certain  animals,  birds, 
and  insects  can  eat  poisonous'  plants  with  perfect  impunity, 
the  flesh  and  secretions  of  these  creatures  prove  highly 
poisonous  to  human  beings.  Thus,  the  honey  of  the  bee  fed 
on  the  kalmia,  azalea,  and  rhododendron,  and  even  the  mead 
made  from  it,  has  been  found  to  be  poisonous  (Guy's  Foren. 
Med.,  p.  350).  Herodotus  states  that  during  the  celebrated  re- 
treat of  the  ten  thousand  under  Xenophon  the  army  suffered 
greatly  from  using  honey  collected  from  the  Azalea  Pontica. 
The  flesh  of  hares  that  had  eaten  the  Rhododendron  chrysan- 
themum, that  of  pheasants  that  had  fed  on  the  buds  and  shoots 
of  the  Kalmia  latifolia,  and  that  of  partridges  that  had  par- 
taken of  certain  berries  during  the  Canadian  winter,  and 
had  been  imported  into  England  packed  in  ice,  have  proved 
poisonous.  This  very  question  was  made  a  ground  of  defense 
in  the  case  of  Sprague,  tried  for  attempting  to  poison  the 
Chalker  family,  and  acquitted.  It  was  urged  that  the  bella- 
donna (the  alleged  poison)  had  found  its  way  into  the  poisoned 
pie  through  the  flesh  of  a  rabbit  that  had  fed  on  the  plant 
(Guy's  Forensic  Med.,  p.  349).  The  "Medical  Times  and 
Gazette,"  Sept.  13,  1862,  contains  an  account  of  several  per- 
sons near  Toulouse  who  were  poisoned  by  a  dish  of  snails 
that  had  fattened  on  the  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  Coriaria 
myrtifolia. 


EVIDENCE   DERIVED   FROM   CIRCUMSTANCES.  87 

SECTION   VI. 

EVIDENCE   DERIVED   FROM   THE   CIRCUMSTANCES. — MORAL   EVIDENCE. 

V.  The  circumstances  attending  death  by  poisoning,  like 
those  connected  with  any  other  violent  death,  may  occasion- 
ally throw  much  light  upon  the  case,  so  much  so  indeed  as 
to  afford  most  of  the  required  proof  of  guilt.  Although  in 
criminal  trials,  as  a  general  rule,  the  expert  witness  has  * 
nothing  to  do  with  this  sort  of  evidence,  nevertheless,  in 
poison-cases  particularly,  the  medical  and  moral  circum- 
stances are  often  so  interwoven  that,  in  order  rightly  to  ap- 
preciate the  latter,  and  assign  to  them  their  proper  weight, 
the  aid  of  the  medical  witness  is  invoked.  Hence  the  im- 
portance of  his  proper  understanding  of  them. 

1.  The   first  of  these  "  circumstances"  to  be   noticed  is 
the  suspicious  conduct  of  the  accused  before  the  event,  such  as  dab- 
bling with  certain  poisons  not  in  the  way  of  his  profession, 
conversing  about  them,  experimenting  with  them,  etc.    This 
was  a  very  strong  circumstance  against  the  Count  Bocarme, 
who  was  convicted  of  poisoning  his  brother-in-law,  M.  Fou- 
gnies,  in  Belgium,  by  forcibly  introducing  nicotina  (the  active 
principle  of  tobacco)  into  his  throat.     It  was  proved  that 
the  prisoner  had  given  his  special  attention  and  study  to  the 
most  approved  methods  of  distilling  this  (then)  almost  un- 
known poison ;  that  he  had  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  in 
his  possession  ;  that  he  had  carefully  concealed  his  chemical 
apparatus;  that  he  used  an  assumed  name  in  his  different 
purchases,  etc. 

2.  The  purchase,  or  the  possession,  of  the  alleged  poison 
just  before  the  event;  the  procuring  of  it  secretly,  or  under 
false  pretenses.     This  is  a  very  common  and  familiar  cir- 
cumstance in  trials  for  poisoning,  and  it  generally  carries 
much  weight  against  the  prisoner.     In  the  alleged  purchase 
of  arsenic,  or  strychnia,  for  the  destruction  of  rats,  it  would 
be  a  very  suspicious  circumstance  if  the  purchaser  had  not 
apprised  his  household  of  the  fact,  and  warned  them  against 
taking  it  by  mistake. 

3.  The  2>roof  of  actual  administration  of  the  poison  in  food, 


88  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

drink,  or  medicine.  This  proof  is  very  seldom  attainable 
by  direct  evidence;  but  it  maybe  often  brought  home  to 
the  guilty  party  by  a  chain  of  circumstances  of  a  strictly 
medical  nature.  William  Muir  was  condemned  at  Glasgow 
in  1812  for  poisoning  his  wife.  She  sickened  soon  after 
breakfasting  on  some  porridge,  which  she  suspected  had  been 
poisoned.  Soon  after,  a  neighbor  who  had  some  knowledge 
of  medicine  called  in,  and,  hearing  the  circumstances,  ex- 
amined the  wooden  bowl  containing  the  remnants  of  the 
oat-meal  from  which  the  breakfast  had  been  prepared ;  this 
was  found  to  contain  shining  particles,  which  subsequently 
proved  to  be  arsenic.  He  also  examined  the  barrel  contain- 
ing the  family  store  of  meal,  which  proved  to  be  free  from 
the  poison.  This  circumstance  was  enough  to  show  that  the 
poison  had  been  mixed  with  the  meal,  intended  for  the 
woman's  breakfast,  and  on  that  very  morning,  before  any 
stranger  had  entered  the  cottage,  and  consequently  to  fasten 
suspicion  very  strongly  upon  the  husband,  the  only  other 
person  in  the  house. 

A  similar  case  is  related  by  Dr.  Taylor  (Hartley's  case), 
where  a  girl  was  accused  of  attempting  to  poison  her  father 
by  putting  oil  of  vitriol  into  his  coffee.  Here  the  point  to  be 
established  was,  could  anybody  else  besides  the  prisoner  have 
put  the  poison  into  the  coffee?  She  had  the  opportunity  to 
do  it,  as  also  to  put  it  into  the  coffee-pot  at  the  time  she  pre- 
pared it ;  whilst  others  might  have  put  it  into  his  cup  after 
it  was  poured  out.  Dr.  Taylor  ascertained  that  the  coffee- 
pot was  old  and  rusty;  the  poisoned  coffee  in  the  cup  con- 
tained no  trace  of  iron  (which  it  would  have  done  if  the  acid 
had  been  put  into  the  coffee-pot) ;  whereas  when  a  portion 
of  the  poisoned  coffee  was  warmed  in  the  pot,  it  imme- 
diately became  impregnated  with  sulphate  of  iron.  This 
analysis  satisfactorily  established  the  fact  that  the  poison  had 
not  been  put  into  the  coffee-pot,  but  into  the  cup ;  and  to 
this,  others  besides  the  prisoner  had  access.  In  Humphrey's 
case,  tried  at  Aberdeen,  in  1830,  the  charge  of  poisoning  her 
husband  by  pouring  sulphuric  acid  down  his  throat  while 
asleep,  was  rendered  all  but  positive  by  the  detection  of  stains 
of  this  acid  on  the  prisoner's  bed-gown  and  handkerchief.  In 


EVIDENCE   DERIVED    FROM    CIRCUMSTANCES.  89 

the  case  of  Reg.  v.  North  (Guilford  Summer  Assizes,  1846), 
the  prisoner  was  tried  for  administering  oil  of  vitriol  to  a 
young  infant.  The  circumstance  that  most  strongly  impli- 
cated her  was  of  a  negative  character.  She  was  proved  to 
have  carried  the  child  into  a  closet  where  she  kept  a  bottle 
of  oil  of  vitriol;  and  when  she  returned,  the  infant  was 
writhing  in  great  pain,  and  the  mouth  covered  with  a  white 
foam.  The  accused  alleged  that  the  mother  of  the  child 
had  administered  the  poison  by  mistake  for  a  composing 
draught ;  but,  if  this  had  really  been  the  case,  there  would 
have  been  a  blacking  of  the  white  sugar  in  the  cup,  when 
the  oil  of  vitriol  was  poured  upon  it,  which  did  not  occur: 
consequently,  it  was  impossible  that  the  mother  had  made 
the  alleged  mistake. 

4.  The  intention  of  the  accused; — the  possibility  of  his  hav- 
ing administered  the  poison  ignorantly  or  unintentionally. — 
This  plea  is  sometimes  urged  by  the  defense ;    but  generally 
the  particulars  of  the  case  will  serve  to  expose  the  falsehood. 
Mr.  Hodgson,  surgeon,  was  tried  for  attempting  to  poison 
his  wife,  in  1824,  by  substituting   corrosive   sublimate   in 
place  of  some  pills  of   calomel  and  opium  that  had  been 
prescribed  for  her.     In  his  defense,  he  pleaded  intoxication, 
which  had  caused  him  to  mistake  the  bottle  when  he  pre- 
pared the  pills.     On  another  occasion,  when  the  physician 
sent  him  to  compound  a  draught  of  laudanum  and  water, 
he  brought  back  a  turbid  mixture,  which  the  physician  found 
to  contain  corrosive  sublimate.    The  prisoner  again  attempted 
to  defend  himself  by  alleging  a  second  mistake, — that  he  had 
inadvertently  substituted  for  water  a  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate  of  a  certain  strength,  which  he  kept  in  his  shop 
for  a  special  purpose.     The  falsehood  was  shown  by  the  fact 
that  while  the  latter  solution  contained  but  five  grains  of  the 
salt  to  the  ounce  of  water,  the  former  contained   fourteen 
grains. 

5.  The  simultaneous  illness  of  other  persons  who  had  partaken 
of  the  same  articles  of  food  or  drink,  besides  the  one  more 
particularly  affected ;  the  researches  and  opinion  of  the  medi- 
cal witness  are  required  to  substantiate  this  circumstance. 

6.  Suspicious  conduct  of  the  accused  during  the  illness  and  after 


90  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  death  of  the  deceased. — Many  circumstances  may  occur  in 
this  relation  which  may  contribute  largely  to  fix  suspicion 
on  the  guilty  party,  and  which  the  medical  witness  may  aid 
materially  in  bringing  out:  such  as  directly  or  indirectly 
preventing  medical  advice  being  obtained,  or  the  relatives  of 
the  dying  person  being  sent  for;  taking  the  exclusive  care  of 
the  patient,  and  showing  an  over-anxiety  not  to  leave  him 
alone  with  another  person ;  allowing  no  one  else  to  give  the 
food  or  medicine;  carefully  removing  the  remains  of  his 
food,  drink,  and  medicine,  and  also  the  matters  vomited,  and 
the  excreta ;  and  expressing  the  opinion  of  a  speedy  death  ; 
after  the  decease,  interposing  objections  to  a  post-mortem 
examination  of  the  body;  and,  if  this  is  insisted  on,  taking 
care  to  spoil  the  result  as  far  as  possible,  by  spilling  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach,  as  if  by  accident  (as  was  done  in  the 
Palmer  case);  hastening  the  funeral,  and  giving  a  false 
account  of  the  illness. 

7.  The  existence  of  a  motive,  or  inducement,  on  the  part  of  the 
accused,  such  as  a  desire  for  revenge,  or  the  expectation  of 
inheriting  property  by  the  death  of  the  party  (as  in  insurance- 
murders)  ;  the  desire  to  be  relieved  of  a  debt  that  has  been 
long  pressing  for  payment  by  the  deceased,  etc.  The  latter 
was  illustrated  in  the  celebrated  Webster  trial  in  Boston,  in 
1850,  where  the  prisoner  was  convicted  of  having  killed  Dr. 
Parkman  (though  not  by  poison),  to  whom  he  had  been  for 
some  time  indebted  for  a  considerable  sum  of  money. 

The  above  comprise  the  most  common  and  the  most  im- 
portant points  of  circumstantial  evidence  that  are  likely  to 
be  brought  out  at  a  trial  for  poisoning.  They  are  substan- 
tially the  same  as  those  contained  in  Christison  "  On  Poisons," 
to  which  work  the  reader  is  referred  for  fuller  details.  It 
would  be  well  for  physicians  who  may  be  consulted  as  "  ex- 
perts" in  such  cases  to  bestow  the  proper  attention  to  these 
various  "  circumstances,"  as  they  present  themselves  on  dif- 
ferent occasions. 


COMPOUND   POISONING.  91 


CHAPTER    VI. 

COMPOUND   POISONING. — ANTAGONISM   OF   POISONS. 

THE  subject  of  Compound  Poisoning  is  one  of  much  in- 
terest, as  likewise  of  considerable  importance  in  its  medico- 
legal  bearing.  In  a  case  of  alleged  criminal  poisoning,  the 
question  might  arise  whether  the  usual  symptoms  may  not 
be  so  modified,  or  masked  by  the  presence  of  some  other 
poison,  as  to  escape  detection  ;  and  further,  whether,  after 
death,  the  usual  morbid  appearances  occasioned  by  one  or 
both  may  be  modified,  or  perhaps  be  altogether  absent.  Our 
knowledge  relating  to  this  subject  is  comparatively  limited, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  human  system  is  concerned.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  a  number  of  experiments  on  the  lower 
animals  have  been  performed  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  question  of  the  antagonism  of  poisons,  the  results  of 
which  seem  to  show  that  in  some  instances  at  least,  and  up 
to  a  certain  limit  as  to  dose,  this  antagonism  really  does  exist 
in  the  case  of  some  of  the  inferior  animals.  Dr.  Frazer  has 
demonstrated  this  conclusively  in  the  case  of  atropia  and 
pliysostigmia  (the  active  principle  of  Calabar  bean),  on  the 
rabbit  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  xxvi.). 

Sir  R.  Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  970)  mentions  several 
cases  that  have  fallen  under  his  own  notice,  where  the  usual 
effects  of  certain  poisons  appeared  to  be  decidedly  modified 
by  the  presence  of  some  other  poison  which  had  been  taken 
simultaneously,  or  just  before,  or  subsequently.  One  instance 
is  that  of  a  man  who,  after  taking  twelve  ounces  of  whisky 
at  a  debauch,  swallowed,  an  hour  afterwards,  while  partially 
drunk,  a  quantity  of  arsenic,  the  dose  of  which  could  not  be 
ascertained.  Fifteen  minutes  after  the  arsenic  had  been 
swallowed,  medical  aid  was  procured,  when  repeated  but  in- 
effectual attempts  were  made  to  vomit  him.  The  stomach- 


92  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

pump  was  now  resorted  to,  which  removed  a  fluid  from  the 
stomach  in  which  arsenic  was  easily  discovered.  No  symp- 
tom of  arsenic-poisoning  followed,  although  this  substance 
was  taken  on  an  empty  stomach,  seven  hours  after  eating — 
when  all  the  circumstances  were  favorable  for  absorption. 
Here,  the  inference  would  seem  justifiable  that  the  alcoholic 
narcotism  did,  in  some  way,  suspend,  or  arrest,  the  usual 
operation  of  arsenic. 

In  another  similar  iustance,  death  ensued  in  consequence  of 
the  large  dose  of  arsenic  taken.  A  lad  aged  seventeen  years, 
after  a  night's  debauch,  swallowed  half  an  ounce  of  arsenic 
in  the  morning.  In  two  hours  and  a  half  afterwards,  when 
seen  by  a  physician,  there  was  no  symptom  of  arsenic-poison- 
ing, but  merely  drowsiness  and  languor.  Shortly  afterwards 
there  was  slight  vomiting,  which,  however,  required  to  be 
artificially  renewed.  In  eighteen  hours  he  began  to  sink, 
and  then  presented  the  usual  constitutional  symptoms  of 
poisoning  with  arsenic,  and  in  forty-one  hours  he  expired. 
From  first  to  last,  he  showed  scarcely  a  single  local  symp- 
tom, except  the  slight  vomiting,  although  after  death  the 
stomach  presented  signs  of  violent  irritation. 

From  the  above,  and  similar  cases  that  have  come  to  our 
knowledge,  we  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  alcoholic 
intoxication  has  the  effect  of  obtuuding  the  system  to  the 
action  of  irritant  poisons ;  and  to  such  an  extent  as  often  to 
neutralize  their  operation,  unless  the  dose  has  been  extremely 
large,  and  there  has  been  little  or  no  emesis  to  remove  the 
poison  from  the  stomach. 

Another  remarkable  instance  related  by  Christison  (loc.  cit., 
p.  972)  was  that  of  a  young  soldier,  who  swallowed  a  mixture 
of  corrosive  sublimate  and  laudanum — two  drachms  of  the  former 
and  half  an  ounce  of  the  latter.  He  at  first  had  no  violent 
symptoms  whatever  to  indicate  the  ingestion  of  corrosive 
sublimate, — a  very  uncommon  occurrence.  Afterwards  there 
was  purging  of  bloody  stools,  with  tenesmus,  but  no  abdo- 
minal pain;  no  tenderness  even  on  pressure;  and  no  vom- 
iting except  under  the  use  of  emetics.  On  the  fourth  day, 
salivation  set  in,  and  under  this  and  the  dysentery  he  finally 
sank,  dying  on  the  ninth  day  after  the  attack,  quite  uuex- 


COMPOUND   POISONING.  93 

pectedly.  The  stomach  and  bowels  were  found  enormously 
inflamed,  ulcerated,  and  almost  gangrenous.  It  can  scarcely 
be  supposed,  as  Christison  remarks,  that  the  laudanum  acted 
here  as  a  chemical  antidote,  and  that  an  insoluble  meconate  of 
,  mercury  was  formed.  "We  must  rather  ascribe  the  results  to 
the  protective  power  of  the  narcotic. 

In  order  that  this  theory  of  the  antagonism  of  poisons 
should  have  any  weight,  or  be  urged  with  any  plausibility  in 
a  criminal  trial,  we  think  that  the  circumstantial  proofs  of 
the  administration  of  the  alleged  combination  should  be 
most  positive  and  unequivocal, — such  as  the  purchase,  posses- 
sion, and  actual  administration,  and  especially,  in  a  fatal  case, 
the  actual  discovery,  of  one  at  least  of  the  alleged  poisons, 
after  death.  It  would  evidently  be  a  most  dangerous  prece- 
dent to  establish  that,  in  a  case  of  alleged  poisoning,  convic- 
tion should  follow,  in  the  absence  both  of  the  usual  symptoms 
and  of  the  usual  post-mortem  signs,  as  also  where  there  is 
a  failure  of  the  ordinary  chemical  analysis ;  and  with  nothing 
to  support  the  charge,  except  the  plea  of  "  compound  poison- 
ing" !  Nothing  could  possibly  warrant  such  a  conclusion, 
except  the  most  absolute  proof  of  the  administration  of  the 
"  compound  poison,"  and  also  an  equally  conclusive  proof 
of  the  absence  of  all  disease. 

A  most  extraordinary  instance  of  the  attempt  to  urge  this 
plea  of  "  compound  poisoning"  occurred  in  the  celebrated 
trials  of  Dr.  Paul  Schoeppe,  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1868  and 
1872,  for  the  alleged  poisoning  of  Miss  Stennecke.  The 
prisoner  was  first  indicted  for  administering  prussic  acid  to 
the  deceased,  his  patient,  who  had  died  with  all  the  symp- 
toms of  apoplexy,  more  than  thirty  hours  after  taking  any 
food  or  medicine.  There  was  not  a  single  recognized 
symptom  of  prussic  acid  poisoning;  nor  indeed  was  the  idea 
of  poisoning  entertained  at  all,  until  some  days  after  her 
death,  when  a  will  was  discovered,  made  by  the  deceased  in 
favor  of  the  prisoner,  to  the  exclusion  of  her  heirs-at-law. 
The  body  was  then  examined  for  prussic  acid;  but  the 
method  of  analysis  pursued  by  the  chemist  was  so  incon- 
clusive (see  HYDROCYANIC  ACID),  that  the  Commonwealth 
abandoned  this  charge,  and  substituted  another,  viz.,  that  of 

7 


94  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

compound  poisoning  by  prussic  acid  and  morphia.  Here  comes 
in  the  most  remarkable  circumstance  of  this  remarkable 
trial.  As  the  plea  of  a  "compound  poison"  was  entirely 
novel  in  the  criminal  jurisprudence  of  our  country,  and  no 
expert  could  be  found  to  testify  to  its  reality  either  from  , 
personal  experience,  or  otherwise,  the  testimony  of  one  of 
the  medical  witnesses  for  the  prosecution  was  allowed  to  go 
before  the  jury,  to  the  following  effect:  that,  some  thirty  years 
previously,  he  (the  physician)  had  experimented  upon  a 
chicken-hawk  by  giving  it  a  mixture  of  prussic  acid,  corro- 
sive sublimate,  and  laudanum,  made  up  with  bread-crumbs; 
that  the  bird  died  on  the  following  day;  and  that  after  death, 
"its  eyes  looked  just  like  the  eyes  of  the  deceased  lady;" 
and  therefore  he  concluded  that  her  death  had  been  caused 
by  a  mixture  of  prussic  acid  and  morphia!  For  the  credit  of 
justice  we  regret  to  be  compelled  to  add  that  this  "expert" 
evidence  was  made  to  weigh  so  powerfully  with  the  jury,  that 
they  actually  convicted  the  prisoner  of  murder,  and  sen- 
tence of  death  was  passed  upon  him ;  and  he  was  respited 
only  a  day  or  two  before  the  time  fixed  for  his  execution,  in 
consequence  of  the  strong  and  almost  unanimous  protest  of 
the  medical  and  chemical  professions,  throughout  the  country. 
For  over  three  years  the  accused  was  allowed  to  remain  in 
prison,  when  at  length  another  trial  was  obtained  for  him, 
the  result  of  which  was  a  complete  overthrow  of  the  Com- 
monwealth's previous  "expert"  testimony,  and  a  prompt 
acquittal  by  the  other  jury  who  tried  him. 

In  the  year  1870  the  author  performed  a  number  of  experi- 
ments upon  dogs,  with  the  view  of  testing  this  question  of 
the  antagonism  of  certain  poisons.  A  few  of  the  results 
only  will  be  here  briefly  mentioned. 

1.  Prussic  acid  and  morphia. — The  antagonism  was  found 
to  be  very  slight,  if  indeed  it  existed  at  all.  It  was  ob- 
served that  when  the  dose  of  prussic  acid  was  less  than  the 
minimum  fatal  quantity,  and  the  morphia  was  in  excess,  the 
effects  resulting  were  decidedly  those  of  the  latter  agent. 
If,  however,  both  poisons  were  given  in  full  doses  (two 
fluidrachms  of  prussic  acid,  and  two  grains  of  morphia),  in 
divided  portions,  the  symptoms  of  both  toxic  agents  were 


ANTAGONISM   OF   POISONS.  95 

manifested,  and  with  a  fatal  result.  Evidently,  the  morphia 
did  not  counteract  the  fatal  effects  of  the  prussic  acid;  and 
it  never  does,  if  the  latter  be  taken  in  a  full  poisonous  dose.  In 
another  experiment,  in  which  the  quantity  of  both  the 
poisons  was  just  within  the  minimum  fatal  doses,  the  animal 
finally  recovered,  after  exhibiting  a  true  combination  of 
symptoms, — sometimes  those  of  the  one  poison  following  its 
administration,  and  sometimes  those  of  the  other. 

2.  Morphia  and  atropia. — The  first  point  to  be  noticed  here 
is  the  remarkable  tolerance  of  the  dog  for  atropia:  doses  of 
eight  and  even  fourteen  grains  did  not  destroy  life ;  and  doubt- 
less a  larger  dose  might  have  been  borne.     The  tolerance  of 
the  rabbit  is  even  greater.     Dr.  Frazer  in  his  experiments 
found  that  the  minimum  fatal  dose  of  sulphate  of  atropia  for 
a  rabbit  weighing  three  pounds,  was  twenty-one  grains.      It 
is  well  known  that  this  animal  will  actually  fatten  on  the 
leaves  of  the  belladonna.     Birds  also  appear  to  enjoy  the 
same  immunity  from  its  poisonous  impression. 

The  most  observable  effects  on  dogs  were  partial  or  com- 
plete loss  of  muscular  power  (paralysis),  with  only  slight 
nervo-excitant  effects,  such  as  twitchings,  but  no  distinct 
convulsions;  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  and  blindness;  with 
dryuess  of  the  tongue  and  fauces.  When  the  two  poisons 
were  given  in  combination,  the  results  of  the  experiments 
did  not  indicate  any  real  antagonism.  In  one  of  these  trials, 
iu  which  four  grains  of  morphia  were  injected  subcutane- 
ously,  narcotism  was  fully  produced  in  one  hour,  when  four 
grains  of  atropia  were  similarly  administered ;  the  animal 
became  paralyzed  in  an  hour,  but  showed  no  disposition  to 
spasms.  In  twenty-four  hours  he  had  completely  recovered, 
with  the  exception  of  a  slight  dilatation  of  the  pupils. 

In  reltaion  to  the  alleged  mutual  antidotal  power  of  mor- 
phia and  atropia  in  man,  which  seems  now  to  be  generally 
admitted,  it  must  be  remembered  that  we  are  not  yet  fully 
authorized  to  draw  inferences  from  experiments  on  animals, 
in  relation  to  the  human  subject;  for  the  reason  that  the 
tolerance  of  the  former  for  one,  at  least,  of  these  substances 
— atropia — is  so  vastly  greater  than  in  the  case  of  man. 

3.  Strychnia  and  prussic  acid. — These  two  powerful  poisons 


96  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

exhibit  no  mutual  antagonizing  properties.  "When  exhibited 
together  in  about  the  ordinary  minimum  lethal  dose — one 
fluidrachm  of  prussic  acid  and  three-quarters  of  a  grain  of 
strychnia — the  immediate  effect  was  that  of  the  former  poison, 
such  as  panting,  respiration,  great  dilatation  of  pupils,  in- 
ability to  stand,  and  convulsions.  This  was  followed  in  four 
minutes  by  the  tetanic  spasm  of  strychnia ;  and  a  succession 
of  ordinary  convulsions  and  tetanic  spasms,  alternating,  en- 
sued, until  the  animal  died,  eighteen  minutes  after  receiving 
the  poisons.  In  other  experiments  in  which  the  substances 
were  administered  together,  in  rather  smaller  quantity  than 
the  minimum  fatal  dose  of  each,  death  ensued, — the  symp- 
toms of  each  being  perfectly  distinguishable,  alternating  with 
one  another.  Certainly  there  was  no  real  antagonism  be- 
tween them. 

4.  Strychnia  and  morphia. — These   alkaloids   showed    no 
evidence  of  any  antagonistic  power,  at  least  in  dogs.    One  of 
these  animals  was  completely  narcotized  by  the  hypodermic 
injection  of  a  grain  of  morphia;  he  was  very  drowsy;  could 
not  stand ;  pupils  moderately  dilated.    Half  a  grain  of  strych- 
nia was  then  given  hypodermically,  which   manifested  its 
effects  in  five  minutes,  and  in  another  minute  produced  a 
decided  tetanic  convulsion,  followed  by  others;  death  oc- 
curred in  twenty-one  minutes.     Other  experiments  on  cats 
indicated   satisfactorily  that  morphia,  so   far  from   dimin- 
ishing the  power  of  strychnia,  rather  intensified  it  in  this 
animal. 

5.  Atropia  andphysostigmia. — The  interesting  experiments  of 
Dr.  Frazer  with  these  substances  on  dogs  and  rabbits  (Trans. 
Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  xxvi.),  demonstrate  very  clearly  their 
physiological  antagonism.      A  dose  of  physostigmia  three 
and  a  half  times  greater  than  the  minimum  fatal,  is  com- 
pletely neutralized  by  an  exceedingly  small  (comparatively) 
dose  of  atropia — one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  a  grain.  In  treat- 
ing a  case  of  poisoning  by  Calabar  bean  in  man,  the  atropia 
should  be  administered  hypodermically — one-fiftieth  to  one- 
thirtieth  of  a  grain  ;  and  this  should  be  continued  until  its 
characteristic  impression  is  produced,  as  indicated  by  dilata- 
tion of  the  pupils,  etc.     The  action  of  these  two  substances 


ANTAGONISM    OF    POISONS.  97 

physiologically,  is  remarkably  distinct,  more  so  than  that  of 
any  other  known  poisons. 

6.  Atropia  and  strychnia. — There  would  appear  to  be  an 
antagonism  between  these  two  powerful  poisons,  judging 
from  an  interesting  case  reported  by  Mr.  S.  Buckley  in  the 
Edin.  Med.  Jour.,  Sept.,  1873.  A  woman,  aged  twenty-eight 
years,  had  taken  an  unknown  quantity  of  strychnia  with  a  view 
to  suicide.  When  seen  half  an  hour  afterwards,  she  was  in  a 
state  of  complete  opisthotonos,  the  spasms  severe  and  painful, 
and  the  intervals  short.  The  stomach  was  washed  out  by 
the  stomach-pump,  and  chloroform  administered  with  a  view 
to  relieve  the  spasms,  but  without  apparent  effect.  As  an 
antidote,  twenty  minims  of  liquor  atropise,  equal  to  one-sixth 
of  a  grain,  were  injected  subcutaneously  three  times,  at  in- 
tervals of  ten  minutes.  "  Under  this  treatment,  a  semi- 
comatose  condition  supervened,  and  after  each  injection  the 
spasms  became  milder  in  character.  At  this  period  the  heart's 
action  was  impetuous  and  irregular;  the  pulse  130,  and  flut- 
tering; respiration  hurried  and  somewhat  stertorous;  the 
pupils  widely  dilated ;  the  face  flushed,  and  the  features  fixed. 
The  atropia  was  now  continued,  but  in  smaller  doses,  and  at 
longer  intervals.  The  spasms  always  increased  when  the 
injections  were  long  omitted."  Chloroform  had  been  discon- 
tinued. Consciousness  returned  in  about  eight  hours  after 
the  poison  was  swallowed;  and,  after  sleeping  a  few  hours, 
she  appeared  to  suffer  no  further  inconvenience  except  a 
sense  of  uneasiness  about  the  throat,  and,  on  the  day  following, 
some  stiffness  of  the  joints.  The  whole  amount  of  atropia 
administered  was  one  and  a  sixth  grains — an  enormous  dose, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  one-sixth  of  a  grain  has  proved 
fatal  under  ordinary  circumstances.  (See  articles  by  the 
author,  On  the  Antagonism  of  Poisons,  in  Arner.  Jour.  Med. 
Sciences,  Jan.  and  April,  1871.) 


CHAPTER    VII. 

METHOD    OF    CHEMICAL    PROCEDURE    IN   A    CASE   OF    SUSPECTED 

POISONING. 

THE  following  rules  are  taken  mainly  from  the  excellent 
treatise  of  Tardieu  and  Roussin  (Sur  I'Empoisonnement, 
chap.  iv.).  The  two  accompanying  tables  have  been  also 
translated  from  the  same  authority. 

After  being  thoroughly  satisfied  in  relation  to  the  identity  of 
the  substances  submitted  for  his  examination  (ante,  p.  65),  and 
having  obtained  all  necessary  information  in  relation  to  the 
previous  symptoms,  and  (in  a  fatal  case)  the  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances, as  a  guide  for  his  manipulations,  the  toxicologist 
is  prepared  to  perform  the  chemical  analysis.  This  may  be 
required  not  only  for  the  viscera  and  organs  of  the  dead 
body,  but  also  for  various  substances  discovered  and  seized 
by  the  officers  of  the  law — such  as  suspected  food  and  drinks, 
medicinal  preparations,  vomited  matters,  dejections  from  the 
bowels,  urine,  and  any  other  matters  supposed  to  aid  in  the 
research.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  poisons  to  be 
sought  for  are  those  that  are  well  known,  and  such  as  can 
usually  be  detected  with  certainty  by  the  skillful  chemist. 
Should,  however,  the  poison  be  one  of  great  rarity,  and  one 
whose  analysis  has  not  hitherto  been  attempted,  the  chemist 
must  expect  to  encounter  considerable  embarrassment  in  his 
investigation,  unless,  by  good  fortune,  some  clew  to  its  nature 
has  been  furnished  him  in  advance. 

In  an  examination  of  a  mineral  substance,  even  without 
any  previous  knowledge  of  its  nature,  a  few  preliminary 
experiments  will  usually  lead  to  the  discovery  of  its  true 
character.  But  if  the  substance  be  of  an  organic  nature, 
and  especially  if  it  be  associated  with  complex  animal  mat- 
ters, the  analysis  becomes  far  more  complicated,  and  the 

08 


METHOD  OF  CHEMICAL  PROCEDURE.  99 

reactions  much  less  certain  and  definite.  In  the  language  of 
Tardieu  :  "  Changeable  and  liable  to  decomposition  to  an 
unlimited  extent,  organic  substances  are  endowed  with  great 
mobility,  and  are  with  great  difficult y  operated  upon  so  as  to 
obtain  satisfactory  results.  Their  reactions  interfere  with, 
confuse,  and  destroy  each  other;  or  they  mask  one  another 
so  as  often  to  deceive  the  most  skillful  chemist"  (loc.  cit., 
p.  62).  Instead  of  pursuing  a  different  special  method  for 
each  distinct  poison  suspected  to  be  present,  the  better  course 
for  the  toxicologist  is  to  adopt  one  or  two  of  the  well-estab- 
lished methods  of  procedure,  which  have  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  long  experience. 

Before  submitting  the  organs,  etc.,  to  chemical  analysis, 
they  should  be  subjected  to  a  thorough  physical  examination, 
as  already  intimated  (ante,  p.  65).  This  may  lead  to  the  dis- 
covery of  various  matters  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  that 
may  throw  considerable  light  on  the  case — such  as  fragments 
of  leaves  and  roots,  seeds,  woody  fibre,  granules  of  fecula, 
portions  of  powder  or  fragments  of  mineral  substances,  such 
as  arsenic,  corrosive  sublimate,  etc.  The  state  of  preserva- 
tion of  the  organs  should  be  carefully  regarded,  as  giving,  in 
certain  cases,  valuable  indication  of  the  nature  of  the  poison. 
The  odor  exhaled  from  the  interior  of  the  organs  will  often 
indicate  the  nature  of  certain  poisons  —  e.g.  phosphorus, 
chloroform,  nicotina,  and  prussic  acid.  The  acid  or  alkaline 
condition  of  the  material  submitted  should  also  be  first  ascer- 
tained, by  means  of  litmus  and  turmeric  paper. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  main  and  primary  object,  in  a 
search  for  poison  in  animal  tissues  and  products,  is  to  get 
rid  of  the  organic  matters, — an  object  which  is  sometimes 
very  difficult  to  accomplish.  Although  several  methods  have 
been  devised,  at  different  times,  for  this  purpose,  two  only 
will  be  here  described,  as  being  the  most  perfect  and  reliable. 
The  first  is  that  recommended  by  Fresenius  and  Babo.  The 
solid  matters  are  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  which,  along  with 
the  accompanying  liquid,  are  to  be  put  into  a  clean  porcelain 
dish,  and  treated  with  a  quantity  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid, 
somewhat  greater  in  weight  than  that  of  the  solid  matter 
present,  together  with  sufficient  distilled  water  to  form  a  thin 


100  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

paste.  The  dish,  with  its  contents,  is  next  heated  on  a  water- 
bath,  and  about  twenty  grains  of  powdered  chlorate  of  potassa 
added  to  the  hot  liquid,  and  this  repeated  from  time  to  time 
with  frequent  stirring,  until  the  solid  matter  disappears,  and 
the  mass  becomes  perfectly  homogeneous,  and  of  a  light- 
yellow  color.  It  is  then  to  be  heated  until  the  odor  of  chlorine 
has  entirely  disappeared,  a  little  water  being  added  occasion- 
ally, to  prevent  concentration.  When  entirely  cool,  the  liquid 
is  strained  through  linen,  any  solid  residue  on  the  strainer 
being  washed  with  warm  water,  and  the  washings,  after  con- 
centration, added  to  the  solution  ;  the  mixed  liquids  are  next 
filtered  through  paper.  Although  a  very  large  portion  of 
the  organic  matter  is  destroyed  and  eliminated  by  this  pro- 
cess, it  is  never  wholly  gotten  rid  of.  Still,  the  ultimate 
concentrated  and  filtered  solution  can  be  employed  in  quali- 
tative testing  for  the  usual  mineral  poisons.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, sufficiently  pure  for  accurate  quantitative  testing. 

The  second  process  is  that  devised  by  MM.  Flandin  and 
Danger,  and  is  particularly  recommended  by  MM.  Tardieu 
and  Roussin.  It  is  the  one  generally  adopted  in  France;  and 
is  named  the  process  of  carbonization,  from  the  fact  that  the  or- 
ganic matters  are  reduced  to  charcoal,  through  the  agency  of 
pure  sulphuric  acid  and  heat.  The  organic  matters,  brought 
to  the  consistence  of  a  soft  extract  by  evaporation,  are  put 
into  a  tubulated  retort  attached  to  a  double-mouthed  re- 
ceiver, along  with  one-fourth  their  weight  of  pure  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  and  the  whole  heated  on  a  sand-bath 
for  several  hours,  until  the  acid  vapors  cease  to  escape.  After 
cooling,  the  carbonaceous  mass  is  removed  from  the  retort, 
and  reduced  to  powder  in  a  porcelain  mortar.  This  powder 
is  then  treated  with  sufficient  strong  nitric  acid,  which  will 
dissolve  out  all  the  mineral  substances  present,  and  after- 
wards with  a  little  boiling  water.  The  acid  liquor  is  next 
to  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  dry  residue  dissolved 
in  distilled  water.  This  solution  will  contain  those  metals 
the  nitrates  of  which  are  soluble  in  water,  together  with 
the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  animal  materials  operated 
upon,  such  as  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  alumina,  soda,  with  phos- 
phoric and  hydrochloric  acids. 


METHOD   OF   CHEMICAL   PROCEDUEE.  101 

If,  for  certain  valid  reasons,  such  as  positive  information 
relative  to  the  nature  of  the  poison,  or  the  discovery  of  some- 
thing in  the  preliminary  examination,  the  analyst  deem  him- 
self to  be  on  the  track  of  some  special  poison,  he  should 
appropriate  a  portion  of  the  material — say  one-fourth — for 
this  especial  investigation,  which  he  may  proceed  to  make 
at  once ;  and  if  successful  in  the  research,  he  may  confirm 
his  results  by  further  experiments  on  the  remainder  of  his 
material ;  or  he  may  employ  this  (in  certain  cases)  in  the 
search  for  other  poisons.  But  if  the  chemist  has  no  clew 
whatever  to  indicate  to  him  the  particular  line  of  investiga- 
tion, it  remains  only  for  him  to  practice  a  careful  methodical 
analysis,  as  follows : 

He  commences  by  dividing  into  two  equal  parts  each  of 
the  suspected  organs,  and  also  the  liquids  in  contact  with 
them.  These  portions  are  put  into  two  separate  vessels,  and 
are  destined  for  two  distinct  analyses, — one  for  the  search 
for  mineral  poisons,  the  other  for  that  for  organic  poisons. 
These  two  separate  portions  are  designated  respectively  by 
the  numbers  I.  and  II. 

In  the  general  method  of  research  about  to  be  described, 
the  corrosive  acids  are  not  included,  inasmuch  as  these  pro- 
duce such  characteristic  symptoms,  and  leave  behind  such 
well-defined  marks  of  recognition,  that  it  is  useless  to  en- 
cumber our  description  with  them.  The  proper  method  for 
their  investigation  will  be  detailed  under  their  own  special 
headings. 

The  two  accompanying  tables  represent  at  a  glance  the 
methods  of  procedure  in  both  cases.  The  details  of  the 
analysis  will  now  be  given. 


102 


MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 


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METHOD    OF    CHEMICAL   PROCEDURE. 


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104  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

I.  Search  for  mineral  poisons.  Portion  No.  L  (Table  1.) — 
(1)  This  half  of  the  material  should  first  be  divided  into 
small  pieces  by  means  of  a  knife  or  scissors,  which  should 
be  thoroughly  clean  and  bright.  The  pulpy  mass  ob- 
tained as  above  is  first  weighed,  and  then  introduced  into 
the  apparatus  of  Mitscherlich  (see  post,  PHOSPHORUS),  into 
which  pure  and  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  equal  to  one- 
fourth  the  weight  of  the  material  is  poured.  If  the  matters 
contained  in  the  retort  are  too  thick,  distilled  water  is  added 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  insure  distillation.  The  retort  is  put 
upon  a  sand-bath,  and  cautiously  heated  for  half  an  hour. 

(2)  The  appearance  of  phosphorescence  in  the  course  of 
the  distillation  will  indicate  the  presence  of  phosphorus.     In 
order  to  observe  this,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  experi- 
ment be  performed  in  the  dark.     (For  details,  see  post,  PHOS- 
PHORUS.) 

(3)  The  apparatus  of  Mitscherlich  is  made  to  terminate  in 
a  bent  tube  which  enters  a  flask  containing  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  without,  however,  touching  the  solution.   If 
a  white  precipitate  occurs,  it  is  probable  that  prussic  acid  is 
present.   (For  details  and  exceptions,  see  post,  PRUSSIC  ACID.) 

(4)  If  the  distillation  causes  neither  phosphorescence,  nor 
a  white  cloudiness  in  the  silver  solution,  the  apparatus  is 
allowed  to  cool ;  and  the  contents  of  the  flask  are  transferred 
to  a  tubulated  retort  well  stoppered :  these  should  be  intro- 
duced through  the  tubulure,  by  means  of  a  wide-mouthed 
funnel  with  a  long  neck.     The  flask  and  funnel  should  be 
washed  on0  with  a  little  distilled  water,  which  is  then  added 
to  the  mass ;   this  should  not  occupy  over  a  fourth  of  the 
capacity  of  the  retort,  which  should  be  fitted,  by  means  of  an 
adopter,  to  a  large  receiver,  kept  properly  refrigerated.    The 
retort  is  now  placed  upon  a  sand-bath,  and  its  contents  care- 
fully distilled,  the  process  being  continued  until  these  are 
dry.     This  operation  is  always  tedious,  and  should  be  con- 
ducted slowly;    the  time    ordinarily  required  is   about  six 
hours.     When  completed,  and  the  apparatus  is  cooled,  the 
distilled  liquid  is  set  aside;  and,  with  the  aid  of  a  glass  rod, 
the  black  and  carbonaceous  contents  of  the  retort  are  ex- 
tracted. (Seepost.)  This  substance  is  to  be  powdered  gradually 


METHOD    OF    CHEMIMAL    PROCEDURE.  105 

in  a  porcelain  mortar,  and  then  introduced  into  a  glass  flask, 
along  with  a  tenth  of  its  weight  of  pure  nitric  acid,  and 
allowed  to  digest  for  half  an  hour  at  the  temperature  of  100° 
C. ;  then  a  little  boiling  distilled  water  is  added,  and  the 
whole  is  filtered.  If  the  carbonization  was  complete,  the 
filtrate  will  be  colorless.  (If  it  still  retains  a  yellowish  color, 
it  must  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  after  having  first  added  a 
little  pure  sulphuric  acid ;  the  residue  must  be  again  treated 
with  nitric  acid ;  diluted  with  water,  and  filtered  the  second 
time.)  The  charcoal  is  repeatedly  washed  on  the  filter  by 
hot  distilled  \vater,  and  the  washings  added  to  the  filtrate. 
This  liquid  is  very  acid :  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of  sul- 
phuric and  nitric  acids.  After  it  is  completely  cooled,  it  is 
saturated  with  pure  liquid  ammonia,  until  a  white  precipitate 
begins  to  form.  This  liquid  is  next  put  into  a  flask  which 
should  be  just  large  enough  to  hold  it,  and  a  current  of 
washed  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  should  be  passed  through 
it  to  saturation.  The  closed  flask  is  left  to  itself  for  twenty- 
four  hours;  at  the  end  of  which  time  any  metallic  sulphides, 
which  are  insoluble  in  slightly  acid  liquids,  will  be  com- 
pletely precipitated. 

(5)  If  the  precipitate  is  black,  or  brownish-black,  the  super- 
natant liquid  is  carefully  decanted  by  means  of  a  siphon,  and 
the  flask  is  again  filled  with  recently  boiled  distilled  water. 
The  decantation  and  washing  are  twice  repeated,  and  then 
the  precipitate  with  its  adhering  liquid  is  poured  into  a  small 
porcelain  capsule,  and  is  dried  upon  a  water-bath.     To  the 
dried  residue  several  grammes  of  pure  nitric  acid  are  added, 
and  the  temperature  kept  to  near   the  boiling-point,  until 
all  the  acid  vapors  have  disappeared;    after  which  a  small 
quantity  of  warm  distilled  water  is  added.    (Liquid  A.) 

(6)  A  few  drops  of  the  preceding  liquid  are  placed  care- 
fully upon  a  slip  of  bright  copper.    After  a  contact  of  twenty 
minutes,  this  is  washed  off  with  distilled  water,  and  dried  at  a 
gentle  heat.     If  the  copper  appears  to  be  whitened,  the  spot 
is  gently  rubbed  with  the  finger  of  a  glove,  to  brighten  it 
and  make  it  more  apparent.     If  the  stain  is  due  to  mercury, 
it  will  readily  disappear  when  put  into  the  flame  of  a  spirit- 
lamp.     (See  post,  POISONING  BY  MERCURY.) 


106  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

(7)  Some  drops  of  the  same  liquid  (A)  being  put  upon  a 
strip  of  polished  iron  cause  a  red  deposit,  which  is  rather 
adherent,  becoming  brighter  by  washing  and  drying  under  a 
slight  friction  (copper).    This  red  spot  on  being  covered  with 
a  drop  of  liquor  ammonise  becomes  obviously  blue,  after  a 
short  time.     (See  post,  POISONING  BY  COPPER.) 

(8)  A  few  drops  of  the  liquid  (A)  treated  on  a  watch-glass 
with  a  drop  of  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  will  give  a 
yellow  precipitate,  indicating  lead.    This  precipitate  dissolves 
in  a  large  quantity  of  boiling  water,  but  is  again  deposited 
on  cooling,  assuming  the  appearance  of  shining  scales.     The 
liquid  will  also  yield  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  a 
white  precipitate,  either  immediately  or  very  soon,  if  it  con- 
tains lead. 

(9)  If  the   liquid   saturated  with  sulphuretted   hydrogen 
throws  down  a  yellow,  or  yellowish,  precipitate,  it  must  be 
carefully  examined.     After  decantation,  it  should  be  washed 
once  only — not  with  pure  water,  but  with  a  limpid  aqueous 
solution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.     If  this  precipitate  con- 
sists only  of  sulphide  of  arsenic,  it  will  completely  dissolve  in 
a  few  drops  of  liquid  ammonia,  and  be  precipitated  anew  on 
the  addition  of  an  acid.     If  treated  with  pure  boiling  nitric 
acid,  it  should  disappear,  in  being  converted  into  arsenic  acid; 
and  when  introduced  into  Marsh's  apparatus,  it  should  fur- 
nish the  characteristic  bright  metallic  deposits  on  a  piece  of 
cold  white  porcelain,  and  which  will  immediately  disappear 
on  being  touched  with  a  solution  of  hypochlorite  of  lime  or 
soda.     (See  post,  POISONING  BY  ARSENIC.) 

But  the  yellowish  precipitate  may  turn  out  to  be  nothing 
more  than  finely-divided  sulphur,  arising  from  the  decom- 
position of  a  portion  of  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  under  the 
influence  of  the  air,  or  of  the  acid  in  the  liquid  (and  in  case 
there  should  be  organic  matters  present,  the  colored  precipi- 
tate would  be  composed  of  both  sulphur  and  organic  matters). 
If  the  deposit  consists  exclusively  of  sulphur,  it  will  possess 
none  of  the  preceding  characters ;  moreover,  it  will  undergo 
fusion  at  a  heat  a  little  above  100°  C.,  and  will  bum  without 
residue,  with  a  characteristic  color  and  odor. 

(10)  If  the  liquid  saturated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen 


METHOD    OF    CHEMICAL    PROCEDURE.  107 

yields  no  precipitate,  or  merely  one  of  sulphur,  it  should  be 
put  into  a  porcelain  capsule,  and  boiled  until  the  odor  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  its  volume 
reduced  to  one-tenth  of  the  original.  If  now  introduced  into 
Marsh's  apparatus,  it  will  yield  the  characteristic  spots  on 
porcelain,  if  it  contains  arsenic. 

It  will  be  perceived  that,  in  the  analysis  just  described, 
arsenic  is  discovered  by  two  different  processes  (9  and  10) ; 
the  explanation  is  as  follows :  During  the  treatment  of  the 
suspected  organs  with  concentrated  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids, 
the  arsenical  compounds  present  will  have  passed,  either  in 
whole  or  in  part,  into  the  condition  of  arsenic  acid,  which  is 
difficult  to  precipitate  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  As  this 
precipitation  is  somewhat  capricious,  it  may  happen  that 
arsenic  may  sometimes  be  deposited,  and  sometimes  not. 
Hence  the  provision  of  the  two  processes  for  detecting  this 
substance. 

(11)  If  the  liquid  saturated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
yields  no  metallic  precipitate,  nor  furnishes  any  spots  when 
tested  with  Marsh's  apparatus,  it  is  because  it  contains  none 
of  the  metals  mentioned  above ;  recourse  must  next  be  had 
to  the  carbonaceous  mass  left  upon  the  filter:  this  is  to  be 
divided  into  two  parts — (a)  and  (6). 

The  first  (a)  is  mixed  with  some  distilled  water,  and  then 
from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  pure  carbonate  of  soda 
is  added,  and  the  whole  boiled  for  about  half  an  hour;  when 
the  whole  is  thrown  upon  a  paper  filter.  The  mass  is  repeat- 
edly washed  with  water,  until  the  disappearance  of  all  alka- 
linity, and  again  washed  with  very  dilute  nitric  acid.  The 
results  of  these  washings  being  added  to  the  filtrate,  the  whole 
is  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness  on  a  water-bath.  It  is  then 
again  diluted  with  distilled  water  and  filtered  anew.  If  it  con- 
tains lead,  it  will  respond  to  the  usual  reactions  of  this  metal, 
especially  with  iodide  of  potassium  and  sulphate  of  soda. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  why  lead  should  be  discovered  by 
two  distinct  processes.  Supposing  the  animal  matters  to 
contain  a  salt  of  lead  ;  this  would  necessarily  be  converted 
into  the  sulphate,  in  the  preliminary  action  of  sulphuric  acid. 
But,  as  the  sulphate  of  lead  is  nearly  insoluble,  a  great  part 


108  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

of  it  will  remain  in  the  carbonaceous  mass  upon  the  filter. 
It  may,  however,  happen  that  some  of  it  will  be  redissolved 
by  the  nitric  acid  employed  in  the  treatment  of  the  carbo- 
naceous mass,  and  thus  be  discovered  in  the  filtrate,  as  above 
described.  Hence,  in  a  medico-legal  research,  it  is  proper  to 
provide  for  each  contingency. 

(12)  If  the  first  portion  of  the  charcoal-mass  yields  no  re- 
sult, the  other  portion  (b)  should  be  treated  as  follows:  the 
black  powder  is  mixed  with  distilled  water,  and  from  half  a 
drachm  to  a  drachm  of  pure  tartaric  acid  is  added,  and  the 
whole  boiled  for  a  few  minutes.  It  is  then  filtered,  and  the 
filtrate  treated  with  a  Marsh's  apparatus.  If  antimony  is 
present,  it  will  yield  metallic  deposits  on  porcelain,  not  dis- 
appearing on  being  touched  with  the  solutions  of  hypochlorite 
of  lime  or  soda.  (See  post,  POISONING  BY  ANTIMONY.) 

II.  Search  for  organic  poisons.  Portion  No.  II.  (Table  2.) — 1 
and  2. — The  second  half  of  the  suspected  material  is  divided 
into  small  fragments,  and  diluted  with  a  little  distilled  water, 
if  necessary,  so  as  to  bring  it  to  the  condition  of  thin  soup.  It 
is  then  introduced  into  a  tubulated  retort,  the  beak  of  which 
is  connected  with  a  porcelain  tube. 

This  porcelain  tube  passes  through  a  small  furnace,  and 
has  attached  to  its  extremity  a  set  of  Liebig's  bulbs  contain- 
ing a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  acidulated  with  pure  nitric 
acid.  Through  the  tubulure  of  the  retort  there  passes  a  bent 
glass  tube,  which  reaches  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  contents; 
its  outer  extremity  being  attached  by  means  of  a  gum  con- 
nector to  the  nozzle  of  a  bellows,  by  means  of  which  air  can 
be  forced  into  the  retort,  and  the  volatile  products  carried 
through  the  porcelain  tube.  The  retort  is  heated  by  means 
of  a  sand-bath  to  about  40°  C.,  and  a  slow  and  regular 
draught  of  air  maintained  by  the  bellows.  The  Liebig's 
bulbs  serve  as  a  regulator:  the  rapidity  with  which  the  bub- 
bles of  air  pass  through  them  indicating  to  the  operator  the 
proper  degree  of  motion  for  the  bellows.  After  some  time, 
the  operation  is  stopped  in  order  to  ascertain  if  the  nitrate  of 
silver  solution  is  at  all  clouded.  The  porcelain  tube  is  now 
to  be  gradually  heated  to  redness,  and  the  bellows  again  put 
into  action. 


METHOD  OF  CHEMICAL  PROCEDURE.  109 

If,  under  these  conditions,  the  silver  solution  does  not  be- 
come clouded,  the  experiment  is  brought  to  an  end.  If  the 
reverse  is  the  case,  it  is  continued  until  the  precipitate  ceases 
to  be  thrown  down.  The  contents  of  the  bulbs  are  poured 
into  a  test  glass,  and  the  precipitate  is  washed  several  times 
by  decantation.  If  this  precipitate  very  soon  assumes  a 
violet  color  on  exposure  to  the  light,  dissolves  freely  in  am- 
monia, and  is  insoluble  in  boiling  nitric  acid,  it  is  proof 
that  it  consists  of  chlgride  of  silver,  and  that  the  chlorine 
or  the  hydrochloric  acid  was  derived  from  the'  animal  mat- 
ters in  the  retort;  and  under  the  circumstances  it  is  highly 
probable  that  it  is  due  to  CHLOROFORM  (2)  contained  in  these 
matters.  For,  since  the  precipitate  could  result  onty  from 
chlorine  or  hydrochloric  acid,  these  would  have  been  mani- 
fested at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment,  if  they  had 
existed  in  the  free  state.  But,  inasmuch  as  the  precipitate  in 
the  silver  solution  did  not  occur  until  after  heating  the  por- 
celain tube  to  redness,  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  some 
chlorine  compound,  that  has  no  action  on  nitrate  of  silver, 
was  decomposed  at  a  red  heat  into  chlorine  or  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  has  produced  the  reaction.  Among  the  volatile 
substances  known  in  medicine  and  toxicology,  chloroform  is 
the  only  one  that  will  produce  this  result.  In  a  case  of  this 
kind,  the  characteristic  odor  of  this  substance  would  almost 
certainly  be  noticed.  (3)  If  the  silver  solution  in  the  bulbs 
does  not  become  clouded,  the  search  for  the  organic  alkalies 
may  be  at  once  proceeded  with,  according  to  the  process  of 
M.  Stas,  which  will  be  described  farther  on.  If  a  strong 
alkaline  volatile  liquid,  possessing  the  peculiar  pungent  odor 
of  tobacco,  is  the  result,  it  is  NICOTINA  (4).  If  solid,  a  portion 
of  it  is  introduced  into  the  thigh  of  a  frog  (5).  If  it  greatly 
dilates  the  pupil,  and  the  residue  readily  dissolves  in  water, 
giving  a  strong  alkaline  solution,  is  precipitated  brown  by 
iodine,  and  easily  assumes  a  nauseous  odor,  it  is  ATROPIA  (6). 
If  the  frog  is  seized  with  tetanic  convulsions,  intermittent 
in  their  character,  and  the  residue  responds  to  the  charac- 
teristic color-test  (sulphuric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potassa), 
it  is  STRYCHNIA  (7).  If  the  frog  exhibits  great  weakness,  and 
has  irregular  and  intermittent  beats  of  the  heart;  and  if  the 

8 


110  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

residue  dissolves  in  warm  water,  and  yields  a  solution  which 
is  not  alkaline,  but  gives  a  precipitate  with  tannin  ;  and  if 
the  residue  itself  is  colored  green  by  hydrochloric  acid,  it  is 
DIGITALINE  (8).  .If  the  frog  exhibits  complex  physiological 
phenomena,  and  the  residue  is  crystalline,  nearly  insoluble 
in  water  and  ether,  soluble  in  caustic  potassa,  and  responds 
to  the  recognized  tests  for  morphia  (perchloride  of  iron, 
nitric  acid,  iodic  acid),  it  is  OPIUM  (9). 

Stas'  process  for  separating  the  alkaloids. — This  method  is  the 
most  reliable  of  any  yet  discovered:  it  is  the  one  originally 
employed  by  M.  Stas  for  the  separation  and  identification 
of  nicotina  in  the  celebrated  Bocarme  case.  It  is  a  process 
that  requires  the  greatest  delicacy  and  care  on  the  part  of 
the  operator.  It  is  based  upon  the  following  ascertained 
fact:  "All  the  alkaloids  known  form  with  acids,  and  par- 
ticularly with  tartaric  and  acetic  acid,  salts,  which  are  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol ;  and  these  solutions  are  easily  decom- 
posed by  the  fixed  alkalies.  The  alkaloids  thus  set  free 
nevertheless  remain  in  solution  for  a  few  moments,  and  will 
dissolve  in  ether  if  present  in  sufficient  quantity." 

The  regulated  use  of  water,  and  of  alcohol  of  different 
degrees  of  strength,  effects  a  separation  of  the  foreign  mat- 
ters, and  allows  us  to  obtain  in  a  small  volume  the  solution 
containing  the  toxic  alkaloid. 

The  organs,  or  suspected  matters,  are  finely  divided,  and 
mixed  with  about  double  their  weight  of  pure  alcohol  at  95°. 
From  fifteen  to  thirty  grains  of  pure' tartaric  acid  are  then 
added  (previously  dissolved  in  a  little  alcohol),  and  the  whole 
put  into  a  glass  flask,  which  is  heated  on  a  water-bath  for 
half  an  hour  at  a  temperature  of  about  70°  C.  After  cooling, 
it  is  filtered  through  paper,  the  insoluble  portion  being 
several  times  washed  with  concentrated  alcohol  and  the 
washings  added  to  the  filtrate.  The  liquid  is  slowly  evapor- 
ated at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  35°  C.  The  evapora- 
tion may  be  expedited  by  a  current  of  air,  if  convenient. 

When  the  greater  portion  of  the  alcohol  is  evaporated, 
there  is  left  a  liquid  which  throws  down  fatty  and  other  mat- 
ters;  this  should  be  again  filtered  through  paper  previously 
wetted  with  distilled  water;  the  filter  should  be  carefully 


STAS'    PROCESS    FOR   THE    ALKALOIDS.  Ill 

washed  afterwards.  The  aqueous  liquid  is  now  carefully 
evaporated,  either  in  a  vacuum  or  under  a  receiver  contain, 
ing  quicklime  or  strong  sulphuric  acid.  The  solid  residue 
thus  obtained  is  completely  exhausted  by  cold  absolute  alco- 
hol; this  is  slowly  evaporated  either  in  a  current  of  air  or  in 
vacuo.  The  new  residue  is  dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible 
quantity  of  cold  distilled  water,  and  the  solution  at  once  intro- 
duced into  a  long  narrow  flask  of  such  a  size  that  it  will 
occupy  about  one-fifth  of  its  capacity.  Bicarbonate  of  po- 
tassa  in  small  quantities  is  put  into  the  liquid,  until  effer- 
vescence ceases.  Finally,  the  flask  is  very  nearly  tilled  with 
pure  ether,  and,  after  a  thorough  shaking  for  several  minutes, 
it  is  allowed  to  rest.  When  the  supernatant  ether  has  be- 
come clear,  a  small  portion  of  it  is  carefully  removed  with 
a  pipette,  put  into  a  watch-glass,  and  allowed  to  evaporate 
spontaneously  in  a  dry  place.  The  result  is  exhibited  under 
two  aspects:  it  is  either  liquid  and  volatile,  as  nicotine;  or 
else  it  is  solid  and  fixed,  like  strychnia,  or  morphia. 

(a)  If  the  toxic  substance  is  a  liquid  and  volatile  alkaloid, 
the  preceding  ethereal  solution,  on  evaporation,  leaves  oily 
streaks,  which  slowly  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  capsule. 
If  this  latter  be  slightly  heated,  a  sharp  and  pungent  odor 
will  be  perceived,  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
alkaloid. 

In  order  to  discover  its  true  character,  to  the  contents 
of  the  flask  from  which  the  trial  test  was  made  are  added 
two  cubic  centimetres  of  a  solution  of  caustic  potassa  (one 
part  to  five),  and  the  mixture  is  shaken  up  anew.  When 
the  ether  has  completely  cleared,  it  is  decanted  into  a  larger 
flask ;  the  residue  is  exhausted  by  three  or  four  additions  of 
ether,  and  all  the  ether  solutions  are  united  in  the  larger 
flask,  to  which  are  immediately  added  two  cubic  centimetres 
of  water  acidulated  with  a  fifth  of  its  weight  of  pure  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  flask  is  shaken  for  some  time,  and  then 
allowed  to  rest.  The  ether  is  now  decanted,  and  the  acid 
liquid  is  washed  with  a  new  dose  of  ether.  The  alkaloid  is 
now  in  the  form  of  a  sulphate,  and  is  no  longer  soluble  in 
ether,  but  remains  dissolved  in  the  acidulated  water.  In 
order  to  extract  it  perfectly  from  this  solution,  a  concen- 


112  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

trated  aqueous  solution  of  caustic  soda  is  added,  and  the 
mixture  is  exhausted  by  several  successive  additions  of  pure 
ether.  The  ethereal  solution  is  allowed  to  evaporate  spon- 
taneously under  a  receiver  containing  strong  sulphuric  acid;- 
the  residue  will  contain  the  organic  alkali  in  a  state  of  great 
purity,  which  will  allow  its  physical  and  chemical  properties 
to  be  tested. 

(b)  If  the  tentative  evaporation  of  the  small  quantity  of 
ether  taken  from  the  flask  does  not  indicate  the  presence  of 
a  liquid  alkaloid,  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  soda  is 
added  to  the  mixture  in  the  flask,  and,  after  a  brisk  shaking, 
the  ether  is  decanted,  and  more  is  added,  until  the  mass  is 
completely  exhausted.  The  ethereal  liquids,  being  spontane- 
ously evaporated  in  a  capsule,  leave  as  a  residue  an  aqueous 
liquid,  which  holds  in  suspension  some  solid  matters.  If  it 
contains  a  solid  alkaloid,  it  will  have  a  decided  alkaline  re- 
action ;  and,  although  in  every  case  it  yields  a  disagreeable 
odor,  this  will  not  be  acrid  or  pungent.  In  order  to  isolate 
the  alkaloid  from  foreign  matters,  we  pour  into  the  capsule 
some  drops  of  water  acidulated  with  pure  sulphuric  acid,  and, 
after  some  time,  filter  the  liquid  through  paper.  The  filter 
should  be  washed  repeatedly  with  distilled  water,  and  the 
washings  united  to  the  filtrate.  This  liquid  is  then  allowed 
to  evaporate  to  one-fourth  of  its  original  volume,  either  in  a 
vacuum,  or  under  a  receiver  with  sulphuric  acid  or  quick- 
lime. Next,  a  concentrated  solution  of  pure  carbonate  of 
potassa  is  poured  upon  the  residue ;  and  the  whole  is  finally 
acted  upon  by  absolute  alcohol,  which  redissolves  the  alka- 
loid, and  deposits  it  in  the  crystalline  state,  after  filtration 
and  evaporation.  From  this,  the  physical  and  chemical  char- 
acters of  the  substance  can  easily  be  determined. 

For  separating  some  of  the  alkaloids,  chloroform  and  ami/lie 
alcohol  (especially  the  former)  have  been  found  to  be  much 
better  solvents  than  ether.  The  cases  to  which  these  are 
particularly  adapted  will  be  duly  pointed  out  hereafter. 

This  method,  the  most  exact  known,  is  certainly  suffi- 
ciently minute,  and  requires  to  be  employed  with  all  possible 
carefulness.  The  results  are  satisfactory  in  the  majority  of 
cases.  The  alkaloid  is  easily  concentrated  in  a  small  volume, 


THE    METHOD    OF    DIALYSIS.  113 

and  is  freed  from  the  greater  proportion  of  the  animal  mat- 
ters with  which  it  was  associated.  It  must,  however,  be 
admitted  that,  in  spite  of  every  precaution,  it  scarcely  ever 
happens  that  all  traces  of  foreign  matters  are  completely  re. 
moved ;  besides,  a  small  quantity  of  the  substance  is  lost  in 
the  various  manipulations.  Although  specially  designed  for 
the  separation  of  the  alkaloids,  it  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
discovery  of  digitaline,  although  this  substance  is  not,  properly 
speaking,  a  vegetable  alkali. 

The  very  complicated  process  of  Stas,  above  described, 
may  often  be  much  simplified  with  considerable  advantage. 
For  instance,  in  separating  strychnia  from  organic  mixtures, 
it  is  often  only  necessary  to  digest  for  some  time  in  water 
slightly  acidified  with  acetic  acid,  then  strain  and  filter ;  con- 
centrate by  evaporation  ;  add  liquor  potassae  in  excess,  and 
then  shake  up  with  an  excess  of  chloroform.  After  standing 
awhile,  the  chloroform  solution  of  the  alkaloid  is  separated, 
and  allowed  to  evaporate  to  dryness,  when  the  deposit  is 
tested  in  the  usual  manner  (vide  post,  STRYCHNIA). 

Dialysis. — The  process  of  dialysis  was  originally  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  Graham,  as  a  very  convenient  method  of 
separating  crystalline  bodies  from  complex  organic  mixtures. 
It  is  essentially  the  process  of  endosmose — a  moist  organic 
membrane  being  interposed  between  two  different  liquids. 
The  substance  found  to  be  best  adapted  for  the  septum  is 
parchment-paper,  which  is  prepared  by  soaking  unsized  paper 
for  a  few  minutes  in  a  cold  mixture  of  two  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  one  of  water.  The  dialyser  is  composed  of  a  light 
hoop  of  wood,  or,  better,  of  sheet  gutta-percha  about  two 
inches  in  depth  and  five  or  six  inches  in  wridth,  with  a  piece 
of  moistened  parchment-paper  stretched  over  it,  and  secured 
by  a  string  or  elastic  band  around  it,  so  as  to  form  a  sieve- 
like  vessel.  The  liquid  mixture  to  be  examined  is  poured 
into  the  dialyser,  in  quantity  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in 
depth  ;  this  is  next  floated  in  a  perfectly  clean  glass  or  porce- 
lain basin  containing  distilled  water,  in  quantity  about  four 
or  five  times  that  of  the  liquid  in  the  dialyser.  Any  crystal- 
line matters  (termed  crystalloids  by  Graham)  contained  in  the 
latter  will  begin  at  once  to  pass  through  the  septum  into  the 


114  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

clear  water  on  the  other  side;  while  the  non-crystallizable 
substances  (termed  colloids)  will  remain  behind.  In  the 
course  of  twenty-four  hours  the  process  of  diffusion  will  be 
completed.  The  outer  liquid,  or  diffusate,  should  be  evapor- 
ated on  a  water-bath  to  a  small  volume,  or  to  dryness,  and 
the  residue,  if  sufficiently  pure,  examined  by  the  proper  re- 
agents. A  drop  or  two  of  the  concentrated  liquid  may  be 
evaporated  on  a  piece  of  glass,  and  the  crystals  examined  by 
the  microscope. 

This  process  answers  very  well  where  the  quantity  of  the 
suspected  (crystalloid)  body  is  considerable :  it  is  especially 
adapted  for  the  examination  of  the  mineral  poisons,  as  ar- 
senic, corrosive  sublimate,  tartar  emetic,  etc.  In  identifying 
the  two  latter  poisons,  its  use  is  very  appropriate  as  a  pre- 
liminary test,  inasmuch  as  by  it  we  can  separate  from  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  the  identical  substance  that  has 
caused  death,  whereas  by  the  ordinary  chemical  processes 
this  cannot  be  done,  but  merely  the  metallic  bases  of  the 
salts  are  obtained — viz.,  mercury  and  antimony.  The  pro- 
cess of  dialysis  has  not  been  found  so  well  adapted  to  the 
separation  of  the  organic  crystalloids  (alkaloids) ;  nor,  in 
general,  where  the  amount  of  the  suspected  material  is  small. 
In  both  the  latter  cases,  the  diffusate  is  very  apt  to  be 
contaminated  with  impurities  (colloids)  which  have  passed 
through  the  septum,  rendering  a  further  purification  neces- 
sary. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

MEDICO-LEGAL    QUESTIONS    CONNECTED   WITH    POISONING. 

THE  matters  considered  in  the  preceding  chapters  embrace 
nearly  all  the  medico-legal  points  connected  with  the  subject 
of  poisoning.  It  may,  however,  be  profitable  to  the  student 
to  group  these  questions  together  in  their  proper  order  and 
importance,  so  as  to  present  a  clear  and  definite  picture  of 
the  subject.  These  medico-legal  questions  will  naturally 


MEDICO-LEGAL    QUESTIONS.  115 

present  themselves  in  every  case  of  poisoning  that  comes  up 
for  trial.  Hence  it  is  desirable  that  the  expert  should  be 
thoroughly  instructed  in  relation  to  them,  so  that,  in  his  evi- 
dence, he  may  be  able  fully  to  sustain  his  positions.  As 
many  of  these  questions  presuppose  a  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine as  well  as  of  chemistry,  it  will  be  evident  that  either 
the  expert  should  unite  in  himself  this  twofold  character, 
or  else  that  two  experts — a  chemist  and  a  physician — should 
be  associated  in  the  case.  The  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant questions  that  will  commonly  be  asked  at  a  trial  of 
a  poisoning-case : 

1.  Is  the  death  or  sickness  to  be  ascribed  to  poison  ? — This  ques- 
tion is  fundamental :  it  underlies  all  the  others,  since  it  com- 
pels the  expert  to  submit  to  the  court  and  jury  the  proofs 
of  the  alleged  poisoning.     It  matters  not  whether  the  case 
has  proved  fatal  or  not,  justice  demands  that  science  should 
bring  forward  positive  proofs  of  the  alleged  crime. 

We  have  already  considered  these  proofs  in  detail  (ante,p.  45). 
They  embrace,  (1)  the  symptoms ;  (2)  those  furnished  by  the 
post-mortem  signs;  (3)  those  afforded  by  chemical  analysis; 
(4)  those  derived  from  experiments  on  living  animals;  to 
which  may  be  added,  (5)  the  circumstantial  proofs.  We  have 
seen  how  impossible  it  is  in  any  case  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion of  poison  either  by  the  symptoms  alone  (since  there 
are  no  symptoms  exclusively  characteristic  of  any  poison),  or 
by  the  pathological  lesions  alone,  or  even  by  both  together 
(ante,  p.  68).  But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  nearly 
always  in  the  power  of  the  expert  (or  of  the  medical  man  in 
attendance)  to  discover  the  poison  in  the  matters  vomited 
or  purged,  in  the  urine,  and  in  stains  upon  the  clothing,  or 
on  articles  of  furniture.  In  non-fatal  cases  especially,  the 
neglect  upon  the  part  of  the  medical  attendant,  who  may 
suspect  the  administration  of  poison,  to  make  these  impor- 
tant examinations  of  the  food  and  excreta,  and  his  reliance 
merely  on  certain  symptoms  which  the  patient  has  exhibited,  in 
order  to  sustain  a  charge  of  poisoning,  cannot  be  too  severely 
reprobated. 

2.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  poison  that  has  caused  the  sickness 
or  death  ? — It  has  already  been  shown  (p.  67)  that  in  a  case  of 


116  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

poisoning  the  law  always  demands  "  satisfactory  proof "  of 
the  fact:  it  does  not  prescribe  the  nature  of  this  proof.  It 
has  been  held  by  some,  that  to  establish  the  legal  proof  of 
poisoning,  the  identical  poison  that  caused  the  death  should  be 
obtained  from  the  body,  or  other  material,  and  be  produced 
as  a  corpus  delicti.  This  doctrine  is,  however,  not  tenable :  as 
well,  it  might  be  urged  in  reply,  might  it  be  required  in  a 
case  of  homicide  by  a  blow  upon  the  head,  and  where  a 
fractured  skull  gave  unequivocal  evidence  of  the  cause  of 
death,  that  the  weapon  of  the  murderer  should  be  produced 
as  the  corpus  delicti. 

As  regards  poisoning,  the  rule  to  be  observed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  chemical  proof  is,  that  whenever  it  is  possible  the 
analyst  should  recover  the  identical  poison  alleged  to  have 
been  taken,  and  exhibit  it  in  court.  But  this  is  not  always 
possible,  as  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  vegetable  and  animal 
poisons  which  undergo  decomposition  in  the  body:  in  such 
cases  we  must  be  satisfied  to  exhibit  all  the  known  and  ad- 
mitted chemical  tests,  together  with  (in  certain  cases)  the 
physiological  proofs  (see  ante,  p.  80).  But  in  the  case  of  the 
mineral  poisons  it  is  possible,  in  many  instances,  by  means 
of  dialysis  (see  p.  113),  actually  to  recover  the  identical  poison 
employed — e.g.  arsenious  acid,  tartar  emetic,  corrosive  sub- 
limate, sulphate  of  copper,  etc.;  and,  further,  in  each  case 
to  obtain  the  metal  in  a  state  of  purity ;  and  from  this  to  de- 
monstrate satisfactorily  all  the  recognized  chemical  reactions 
of  the  poisonous  mineral. 

When  all  the  combinations  of  a  poisonous  metal  are 
equally  dangerous,  it  is  not  essential  to  the  cause  of  justice 
that  the  poison  should  be  detected  under  the  precise  combina- 
tion in  which  it  was  administered,  provided  the  metallic  base  is 
discovered.  Thus,  in  poisoning  from  either  arsenic,  tartar 
emetic,  or  corrosive  sublimate  (although  possible  for  the 
analyst,  as  shown  above,  to  produce  these  identical  sub- 
stances), it  is  regarded  as  sufficient  if  he  can  satisfactorily 
determine  the  presence  of  the  metallic  bases  of  these  poisons, 
— viz.,  arsenic,  antimony,  and  mercury. 

3.  Was  the  substance  administered  capable  of  causing  death  ? — 
This  question  is  likely  to  arise  only  in  non-fatal  cases.  It'  it 


MEDICO-LEGAL   QUESTIONS.  117 

can  be  shown  that  the  substance  given  with  the  intention  of 
producing  death  was  really  not  of  a  poisonous  character  (al- 
though supposed  to  be  so),  conviction  would  not  follow.  So 
also,  if  the  substance  were  poisonous  in  large  doses,  e.g. 
oxalic  acid,  and  only  a  small  quantity — a  few  grains — had 
been  administered,  it  would  not  come  within  the  statute. 
(See  Taylor,  On  Poisons,  p.  183.) 

4.  Was  the  poison  taken  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  death  ? — 
In  many  instances  the  discovery  of  a  large  amount  of  the 
poison  in  the  body  leaves  no  doubt  of  the  true  cause  of  death. 
But  the  expert  must  beware  of  falling  into  the  error  of  sup- 
posing that  the  finding  of  only  a  minute  quantity  of  the  poison 
necessarily  negatives  the  charge.     It  has  been  satisfactorily 
shown  (see  ante,  p.  70)  that  in  some  cases  of  fatal  poisoning 
not  a  trace  of  the  noxious  substance  can  be  found  by  the 
analyst  after  death.     Full  and  sufficient  reasons  were  given 
for  this  failure  to  detect  the  poison.     It  should  never  be  for- 
gotten that  the  quantity  of  poison  extracted  from  the  body 
by  analysis  does  not  represent  the  quantity  taken.  Of  course, 
the  discovery  of  only  a  minute  quantity  of  the  poison  (es- 
pecially of  a  substance  employed  in  medicine)  will  always 
suggest  the  possibility  of  its  having  been  taken  medicinally, 
unless  the  other  elements  of  proof  are  sufficiently  strong. 
(See  ante,  p.  59.) 

5.  When  was  the  poison  taken  ? — The  settlement  of  this  ques- 
tion is  of  importance  both  to  the  prosecution  and  the  defense. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  symptoms  come  on  soon  after  the 
poison  is  swallowed ;  but  the  exact  time  varies  for  different 
poisons  and  for  different  conditions  of  the  system  (see  ante, 
p.  48).     In  the  case  of  poisons  administered  in  small  and 
repeated  doses  (slow  poisons),  this  question  is  more  difficult 
to  determine;    although  each  fresh  accession  of  symptoms 
may  be  regarded  as  indicative  of  a  fresh  dose  of  the  poison. 
It  should  be  remembered  also  that,  in  some  cases  of  fatal 
poisoning,  a  true  intermission  of  symptoms  occurs,  which 
may  lead  to  a  serious  error  in  regard  to  the  time  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  poison. 

6.  Is  it  possible  for  the  poison  to  have  completely  disappeared 
from  the  body,  without  leaving  any  trace  of  its  presence  ?  and  in 


118  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

what  time? — This  question  may  be  answered  affirmatively 
both  as  regards  the  living  and  the  dead  body.  Thus,  violent 
vomiting  and  purging  may  remove  the  whole  of  it  except  the 
small  quantity  absorbed.  And  if  the  individual  survive  long 
enough  for  elimination  (sixteen  days  for  arsenic,  see  ante,  p. 
28),  not  a  trace  of  it  may  be  discovered  after  death.  In  the 
living  body,  the  analysis  of  the  urine  forms  a  very  exact 
index  of  the  presence  of  the  absorbed  poison  in  the  system : 
this  is  especially  true  of  mineral  poisons. 

7.  Could  the  poison  extracted  from  the  body  be  ascribed  to  any 
other  source  than  to  poisoning?  —  The  presence  of  poison,  es- 
pecially in  considerable  quantity,  in  a  body  is  primd  facie 
evidence  of  poisoning;  but  it  is  not,  of  itself,  positive  proof 
(see  ante,  p.  68).     If  found  in  very  small  quantity,  this  may 
be  ascribed  to  medicinal  administration  (in  the  absence  of 
the  other  proofs  of  poisoning).     Again,  it  may  be  traced  to 
accidental  contamination ;    an  instance  of  which   is   given, 
by  Tardieu  and  Roussin  (loc.  cit.,  p.  136),  where  the  lining 
membrane  of  a  stomach  was  found  smeared  over  with  the 
oxide  and  carbonate  of  copper,  which  was  ascertained  to  be 
solely  due  to  the  presence  of  a  large  pin,  that  had  accident- 
ally fallen  into  the  jar,  after  the  autopsy. 

Again,  the  impurities  contained  in  the  reagents  of  the 
chemist,  if  he  is  not  sufficiently  careful,  may  account  for  the 
accidental  introduction  of  certain  poisons,  as  arsenic,  anti- 
mony, lead,  etc.  Finally,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the 
natural  decomposition  of  the  human  body  would  give  rise  to 
certain  products  which,  if  not  actually  identical  with,  closely 
resemble,  some  of  the  organic  poisons.  This  has  been  alleged 
to  be  the  case,  at  times,  with  prussic  acid.  But  the  allega- 
tion lacks  proof.  This  question  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
under  PRUSSIC  ACID  (post). 

8.  Was  the  poisoning  the  result  of  homicide,  suicide,  or  accident? 
— This  is  a  question  for  the  jury  to  determine,  rather  than 
for  the  expert.     Nevertheless,  in  some  cases  it  will  be  in  his 
power  to  throw  light  upon  it,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  cor- 
rosives, where  the  evidence  of  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
deceased   is   shown   by  the  spilling  of  the  fluid    upon  the 
face,  neck,  and  chest  of  the  individual,  together  with  other 


DUTIES    AND    PRIVILEGES    OF    MEDICAL   EXPERTS.  119 

circumstantial  evidence  of  a  similar  character,  all  indicating 
homicide. 

9.  Can  poisoning  be  pretended  ? — There  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
as  many  diseases  are  simulated  for  sinister  purposes,  so  an 
individual  may  pretend  that  he  has  been  poisoned,  and  even 
exhibit  poisonous  mixtures  alleged  to  have  been  vomited,  as 
proof's  of  his  statement.  Like  any  other  impostor  of  this  de- 
scription, such  a  person  must  be  carefully  watched:  this  will 
generally  lead  to  his  detection.  The  idea  of  being  poisoned 
is  a  very  common  delusion  of  the  insane. 

The  above  medico-legal  questions  have  been  taken  chiefly 
from  the  treatise  of  Tardieu  and  Roussin,  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred  for  more  extended  details. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

DUTIES    AND    PRIVILEGES    OF   MEDICAL    EXPERTS. 

THE  subject  of  expert  evidence  is  one  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, especially  in  criminal  trials  for  poisoning.  Here,  indeed, 
the  final  issue  often  depends  materially  upon  the  character 
of  the  expert  testimony.  It  becomes,  then,  a  question  of  the 
utmost  consequence  to  determine  what  are  the  proper  duties 
and  privileges  of  medical  experts. 

The  term  "  expert  witness"  literally  signifies  a  skilled  wit- 
ness— one  who  has  accurate  knowledge  of  the  matter  under 
consideration.  Such  witnesses  are  "  chosen  on  account  of 
their  special  knowledge  or  skill  in  particular  matters,  to  testify 
or  make  a  report  embodying  their  opinions"  (Elwell).  The 
"expert"  witness  does  not  testify  to  facts,  like  the  ordinary 
witness;  but  he  gives  his  opinion,  based  upon  facts  that  have 
been  testified  to  by  others.  It  is  his  special  function  carefully 
to  weigh  all  these  facts,  to  sit  in  calm  judgment  upon  them, 
and  to  deduce  conclusions  from  them,  which  he  delivers  to 
the  court  and  jury  as  his  opinions. 

For  the  consequences  of  his  opinions  he  should  clearly  under- 


120  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

stand  that  he  is  in  no  wise  responsible.  He  is  bound  by  the 
solemnity  of  his  oath  to  tell  all  and  to  suppress  nothing  of 
what  he  conscientiously  believes  to  be  the  truth,  no  matter 
what  may  be  the  result  to  the  accused.  In  the  language 
of  Dr.  Percival,  "  he  should  use  his  best  endeavors  that  his 
mind  be  clear  and  collected,  unawed  by  fear,  and  uninflu- 
enced by  favor  or  enmity." 

How  important,  then,  that  the  individual,  who  assumes  the 
functions  of  an  "expert"  witness  in  a  criminal  trial,  should 
so  clearly  understand  the  matter  on  which  he  is  to  testify, 
and  be  so  familiar  with  its  every  detail,  as  to  preclude  all 
possibility  of  error  on  his  part !  Yet  it  is  notorious  that 
nearly  every  criminal  trial  in  our  country  is  hampered,  if 
not  disgraced,  by  what  has  been  sneeringly  termed  by  the 
newspapers  the  "  war  of  the  experts."  So  much  is  this  the 
case,  that  the  public  have  come  to  expect  this  collision  as  a 
matter  of  course;  and,  as  a  consequence,  they  are  inclined  to 
reject  the  whole  expert  testimony  as  entirely  superfluous,  if 
not  positively  worthless, — a  result  which,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
is  not  unfrequently  reached  also  by  the  jury,  to  the  great  and 
manifest  disparagement  of  justice. 

In  trials  for  poisoning,  it  is  by  no  means  unusual  to  find 
medical  men  summoned  as  "experts,"  both  by  the  prosecution 
and  the  defense,  who  have  never  made  the  subject  of  toxicology 
a  special  study,  and  who  must  therefore  be  ignorant  of  the 
important  details  of  this  science ;  but  who,  nevertheless,  be- 
cause they  are  doctors,  and  are  erroneously  supposed  to  know, 
will  venture  to  assume  this  most  responsible  function,  and 
will  even  presume,  from  the  witness-stand,  to  enlighten  the 
court  and  jury  on  one  of  the  most  intricate  branches  of 
science,  and  will  hazard  "opinions"  which  ma}-  probably 
determine  the  momentous  issues  of  life  and  death  !  If  it 
were  only  possible  to  exclude  these  improvised  experts  from 
poison-trials,  and  confide  the  responsibility  to  men  of  known 
and  recognized  toxicological  ability,  there  would  occur  far 
fewer  occasions  in  which  this  conflict  of  expert  testimony  would 
be  witnessed ;  for  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  among  genuine  ex- 
perts— persons  of  purely  scientific  attainments,  uninfluenced 
by  either  prejudice  or  favor,  not  mere  partisans — this  differ- 


DUTIES   AND    PRIVILEGES    OF    MEDICAL    EXPERTS.  121 

ence  of  opinion  on  a  purely  professional  subject  is  much  less 
likely  to  occur.  Accustomed  to  observe  the  facts  as  pre- 
sented, from  the  same  scientific  stand-point,  and  to  apply  the 
same  chemical  tests  in  order,  to  determine  certain  results, 
there  would  be  a  far  greater  likelihood  of  their  arriving  at 
similar  conclusions. 

We  have  heard  it  gravely  asserted  from  the  bench,  in  a 
certain  criminal  trial  for  homicide,  in  the  charge  to  the  jury, 
that  "  one  expert  is  just  as  good  as  another."  This  doctrine 
we  regard  as  both  unsound  and  pernicious.  If  the  expert 
opinion  of  A,  a  thoroughly  educated  toxicologist,  is  to  be 
neutralized  by  that  of  B,  who  is  merely  a  practitioner  of 
medicine,  who  does  not  see  what  serious  danger  might  re- 
sult to  the  cause  of  justice  and  of  human  life,  if  the  jury  is  to 
estimate  the  "opinion"  of  both  as  of  equal  importance?  It 
is  easy  to  understand  what  might  be  expected  from  a  jury, 
instructed  as  above  mentioned  from  the  bench,  and  bewil- 
dered and  deceived  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  "expert" 
testimony,  by  a  crafty  and  unscrupulous  counsel. 

The  question  of  the  proper  remedy  to  be  applied  to  this 
faulty  system  of  expert  testimony  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  many  able  minds.  Dr.  Wharton  says  (Wharton  and 
Stille's  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  1248),  "The  radical  defect, 
however,  of  our  present  Anglo-American  practice,  in  this 
respect,  is  the  volunteer  position  of  experts,  which  makes 
them,  to  a  large  measure,  the  mouth-piece  of  a  party  who 
often  only  selects  them  because  their  pre-ascertained  views 
suit  his  purposes ;  or  who  only  presents  them  with  such 
materials  as  subserve  his  interests.  In  what  way  this  defect 
can  be  removed  is  one  of  the  most  important  questions  to 
which  social  science  can  now  be  addressed."  In  Great 
Britain  and  France  this  arbitrary  voluntaryism  still  prevails. 
In  France,  the  judge  may  call  in  experts  according  to  his 
discretion ;  he  is  sometimes  guided  by  his  own  partiality, 
and  sometimes  by  the  popular  reputation  of  some  physician, 
without  any  assurance  that  the  expert  thus  called  has  made 
the  particular  subject-matter  of  the  trial  his  specialty. 

In  Germany  it  is,  fortunately,  otherwise.  In  criminal  cases, 
the  experts  first  summoned  are  exclusively  those  whom  the 


122  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

State,  after  proper  examination  of  their  competency  and  skill 
iu  such  particular  inquiries,  has  duly  authorized  to  act  for  this 
purpose;  while  in  addition  to  this,  there  is  organized  a  tri- 
bunal of  experts,  to  which  the  opinions  of  expert  witnesses 
can  be  referred  (Casper's  Gericht.  Med.,  Berlin,  1871,  i.  §  3). 

Under  the  present  head  some  allusion  may  be  made  to  the 
duties  of  "  medical  experts"  when  employed  to  make  exam- 
inations of  a  body  alleged  to  have  been  poisoned.  The  fol- 
lowing extract  from  the  late  edition  of  Wharton  and  Stille's 
Medical  Jurisprudence,  1873, ii.  p.  1246,  presents  very  correctly 
our  own  ideas  in  relation  to  this  subject : 

"  Examinations  made  ex  parte,  when  there  could  have  been  notice 
to  the  other  side,  are  inadmissible. — Examinations,  for  instance, 
of  an  alleged  lunatic,  conducted  by  a  professed  specialist,  or 
examination  of  blood  on  clothing,  or  of  alleged  poison  con- 
tained in  the  stomach  of  a  deceased  person,  or  in  bottles  or 
utensils,  can  in  most  cases  as  readily  be  made  upon  notice  to 
the  opposing  interest,  as  without  notice.  For  various  reasons, 
such  notice,  if  practicable,  should  be  given.  First,  it  is  a 
familiar  principle  of  law  that  depositions  purely  ex  parte  are 
inadmissible:  such  testimony  being  liable  to  be  affected  by 
fraud  or  prejudice,  and  from  want  of  cross-examination 
being  necessarily  imperfect.  Secondly,  there  are  peculiar 
reasons  why  ex  parte  examinations  of  the  character  here 
noticed  should  be  undertaken  only  upon  notice  to  the  op- 
posing interest.  In  such  examinations  everything  depends 
upon  the  accuracy  of  the  tests  employed;  the  exhaustiveness 
of  the  exploration  ;  the  fidelity  and  cautiousness  of  the  exam- 
iner. In  questions  of  poison  and  of  blood-stains,  in  par- 
ticular, it  is  important  that  there  should  be  on  the  spot, 
at  the  time  of  the  examination,  the  representative  of  the 
adverse  interest,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  that  the  objects 
examined  had  not  been  previously  tampered  with ;  that  no 
foreign  elements  were  interposed ;  that  the  investigation  was 
conducted  with  scrupulous  conscientiousness."  .  .  .  "But 
when,  after  these  preliminary  inquiries  (the  coroner's  inquest) 
are  over,  an  examination  is  desired  by  one  of  the  parties  in 
interest,  and  when  this  examination  relates  to  a  subject- 
matter  not  fleeting,  but  continuing,  then  the  examination  is 


DUTIES  OF   EXPERTS. — SUBPCENAS. — COMPENSATION.        123 

analogous  to  the  deposition  of  a  witness,  and  the  policy  of 
the  law  requires  that  it  should  be  taken  only  after  notice  to 
the  other  side." 

"Sometimes,  perhaps,  testimony  of  value  inadvertently 
taken,  will  be  excluded  by  the  application  of  this  rule;  but 
this  will  be  abundantly  compensated  for  by  the  suppression 
of  those  inquisitorial  and  imperfect  investigations  by  which 
the  administration  of  public  justice  has  been  so  much  dis- 
graced ;  and  by  the  investing  of  expert  testimony  with 
checks  and  sanctions  by  which  alone  can  its  dignity  be  re- 
stored." 

The  violation  of  the  above  equitable  principle  was  very 
forcibly  illustrated  in  the  first  Wharton  trial  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  in  1872.  In  this  case,  the  body  of  General  Ketchum, 
who  was  alleged  to  have  been  poisoned  with  tartar  emetic, 
was  thrice  examined,  and  each  time  exclusively  by  the  State's 
experts;  having  been  also  twice  exhumed  for  that  purpose, 
— the  last  time  secretly,  by  order  of  the  court,  during  the 
progress  of  the  trial,  without  even  the  knowledge  of  the 
prisoner's  counsel  or  her  expert  witnesses !  (See  Review 
of  this  trial,  by  the  author,  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  April, 
1872;  also  Wharton  and  Stille's  Med.  Jurisp.,  loc.  cit.) 

Privileges  of  experts. — Subpoenas. —  Compensation. — The  ques- 
tion has  frequently  been  raised  whether  an  "  expert"  witness 
is  obliged  to  obey  the  process  of  a  subpoena,  like  any  ordinary 
witness,  and  testify  in  a  given  case  as  to  his  opinion,  without  a 
previous  guarantee  of  an  adequate  pecuniary  compensation. 
This  is  a  matter  that  especially  concerns  medical  experts,  in- 
asmuch as  in  cases  of  medical  jurisprudence,  and  particularly 
in  poison-cases,  they  are  so  frequently  summoned,  and  the 
final  result  so  much  depends  upon  their  testimony.  In  an 
important  trial  for  poisoning,  the  issues  of  life  and  death 
often  hang  suspended  upon  the  "  opinion"  of  the  expert,  as 
given  in  his  testimony.  In  order  to  be  able  to  give  this 
opinion  conscientiously,  the  witness  should  be  personally 
present  throughout  the  trial,  however  lengthy  this  may  be; 
he  must  listen  attentively  to  all  the  evidence;  he  must  be  in 
close  and  intimate  conference  with  the  counsel,  instructing 
them  in  various  points  of  a  professional  and  scientific  nature, 


124  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

suggesting  proper  questions  to  be  put  to  the  professional 
witnesses,  pointing  out  the  blunders  of  careless  or  unquali- 
fied chemists  and  physicians  who  may  have  been  employed 
in  the  case,  and  often  performing  experiments  in  order  to 
verify  his  positions.  Now,  to  do  all  this  requires  the  expert 
to  absent  himself  for  a  length  of  time  from  home  and  from 
his  daily  professional  duties,  to  the  manifest  detriment  of 
his  business.  We  speak  not  here  of  the  additional  labor, 
anxiety,  and  responsibility  involved  where  the  expert  has 
been  required  to  make  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  body, 
in  a  case  of  supposed  poison. 

The  question,  then,  presents  itself  with  much  force — how 
is  the  expert  witness  to  be  compensated  for  his  time  and  ser- 
vices? Has  the  State  the  right  to  compel  him  to  attend  and 
testify  at  the  trial  ?  lias  the  defense  this  right  also  ?  Let  us 
examine  these  questions. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  an  expert  wit- 
ness cannot  be  subpoenaed  to  attend  a  trial  out  of  his  own 
State.  If  he  goes  at  all,  it  must  be  voluntarily;  and  he  is  at 
liberty,  of  course,  to  arrange  his  own  terms ;  these  would 
naturally  be  regulated  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  Should,  however,  the  trial  occur  within  the  limits  of 
his  own  State,  the  matter  assumes  a  different  form.  Every 
person  is  compelled  by  law  to  obey  the  mandate  of  a  sub- 
poena, within  his  own  State :  the  medical  expert  is  no  excep- 
tion to  this  general  rule.  Such  seems  to  be  the  naked  law 
upon  this  question.  High  authorities,  however,  have  some- 
times ruled  differently.  Lord  Campbell's  opinion  in  Betts  v. 
Clifford  (Warwick  Lent  Assizes,  1858)  was  that  a  scientific 
witness  was  not  bound  to  attend  on  being  served  with  a  sub- 
poena, and  that  he  ought  not  to  be  subpoenaed.  If  the  witness 
knew  any  question  of  fact,  he  might  be  compelled  to  attend, 
but  he  could  not  be  compelled  to  give  his  attendance  to  speak 
to  matters  of  opinion.  In  the  case  of  Webb  v.  Page  (Car.  and 
Kir.  Reports,  p.  23),  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Maule  ruled  as 
follows :  "  There  is  a  distinction,"  said  his  lordship, "  between 
the  case  of  a  man  who  sees  a  fact  and  is  called  to  prove  it 
in  a  court  of  justice,  and  that  of  a  man  who  is  selected  by  a 
party  to  give  his  opinion  on  a  matter  on  which  he  is  pecu- 


DUTIES    OF    EXPERTS. — SUBPCENAS. — COMPENSATION.       125 

liarly  conversant  from  the  nature  of  his  employment  in  life. 
The  former  is  bound,  as  a  matter  of  public  duty,  to  speak  to 
a  fact  which  happens  to  have  fallen  within  his  own  knowl- 
edge; without  such  testimony  the  cause  of  justice  must  be 
stopped.  The  latter  is  under  no  such  obligation;  there  is  no  such 
necessity  for  his  evidence,  and  the  party  who  selects  him  must 
pay  him."  In  the  case  referred  to  by  Mr.  Justice  Maule,  a 
skilled  witness  had  been  subpoenaed,  but  he  refused  to  give 
evidence  unless  first  paid  for  his  services  and  loss  of  time. 
(Med.  Times  and  Gaz.,  April  26,  1862,  p.  432.)  A  barrister 
quoting  this  ruling  goes  on  to  say:  "There  is  one  reason 
why  I  should  not  advise  any  person  in  the  position  of  a  skilled 
witness,  totally  to  disregard  a  subpoena.  It  is  quite  clear  that 
should  such  a  person  fail  to  attend  a  trial,  no  attachment 
could  ensue,  even  if  he  were  called,  as  is  usual,  upon  the 
subpoena,  because  the  party  subpoenaing  him  could  not  make 
the  requisite  affidavits  that  he  was  damnified  by  the  witness's 
absence,  and  in  what  respect.  But  such  party  might  bring 
an  action  for  damages  ;  and  although  he  would  recover  none, 
he  might  not  only  worry,  but  might  even  put  the  defendant 
to  considerable  expense.  Although,  therefore,  I  could  not 
advise  a  total  neglect  of  the  subpoena,  the  safest  course  would 
be  to  obey  it,  and  demand  expenses  before  giving  evidence. 
Such  expenses  would  be  only  those  allowed  for  a  professional 
witness  (not  special  fees).  To  permit  him  legally  to  demand 
a  high  fee,  would  perhaps  look  somewhat  like  legally  coun- 
tenancing a  bribe." 

Dr.  Taylor,  from  whose  work  on  Medical  Jurisprudence 
(Am.  ed.,  1873,  p.  40)  the  above  is  quoted,  remarks,  "that 
Lord  Campbell's  dictum  in  reference  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween/ad and  opinion  confers  no  practical  benefit  on  witnesses. 
It  is  at  all  times  difficult  in  science,  and  in  the  medical  sciences 
particularly,  to  separate  them ;  and  if  a  man  appears  to  testify 
to  a  medical  or  scientific  fact,  he  cannot  avoid  giving  an  opinion 
arising  out  of  the  fact." 

Granting  all  the  force  of  the  above  opinions,  it  can  hardly 
be  supposed  that,  in  an  important  trial  for  murder  by  poison- 
ing, the  counsel  for  either  the  prosecution  or  the  defense 
would  hazard  the  issue  upon  the  testimony  of  a  reluctant  ex- 

9 


126  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

pert,  who  has  been  dragged  perhaps  hundreds  of  miles  from 
his  home  and  professional  business,  and  has  been  detained 
for  days  or  weeks,  and  then  insulted  with  the  proffer  of  the 
paltry  allowance  of  an  ordinary  witness.  Although  the  law 
might  compel  him  to  go  upon  the  witness-stand,  and  to  be 
sworn  to  state  "  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 
the  truth,"  who  does  not  see  that,  while  the  witness  may  not 
violate  the  letter  of  the  law,  his  testimony  may  be  practically 
neutralized  by  the  manner  in  which  he  gives  it?  For,  after 
all,  the  moral  power  of  the  expert,  in  such  cases,  is  exhibited 
not  so  much  by  his  mere  answers  to  categorical  questions,  as 
indirectly,  by  the  aid  afforded  to  his  counsel  in  a  multitude  of 
ways.  He  may,  for  instance,  refuse  to  hold  any  conference 
with  counsel  on  the  delicate  points  of  the  case;  he  may  de- 
cline to  suggest  any  valuable  hints  as  to  the  manner  of  put- 
ting questions  to  the  witnesses  on  scientific  subjects;  he  may 
abstain  from  performing  experiments  either  for  the  purpose 
of  confirming  or  of  rebutting  certain  points  of  the  evidence : 
in  fine,  he  may  take  such  a  passive  part  as  an  "  expert"  wit- 
ness, that  he  will  prove  rather  a  detriment  than  a  help  to 
the  party  summoning  him.  From  some  experience  on  this 
subject,  we  would  strongly  advise  against  the  attempt  to 
compel  a  skilled  witness  to  testify  in  a  trial,  without  a  pre- 
vious satisfactory  understanding  as  to  his  adequate  compen- 
sation. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  that  we  take  too  mercenary  a  view 
of  this  matter.  On  what  principle  of  justice  or  morality, 
we  would  ask,  should  a  professional  witness  be  refused  an 
adequate  compensation  for  services  which  have  cost  him 
years  of  study  and  labor,  as  well  as  no  inconsiderable  outlay 
of  money?  We  desire  to  speak  very  plainly  and  pointedly 
on  this  subject:  it  is  one  too  little  noticed  and  insisted  on  in 
works  of  this  character.  According  to  good  authority,  it  will 
always  be  proper  for  the  professional  expert  to  ask  the  court 
for  a  proper  compensation  before  he  gives  his  evidence. 
Generally,  some  compensation  will  be  allowed  by  the  court, 
additional  to  the  ordinary  witness-fee;  but  this  extra  allow- 
ance is  likely  to  be  altogether  inadequate  to  the  services 
rendered.  In  fact,  the  whole  matter  seems  to  depend  very 


COMPENSATION   TO   EXPERTS..  127 

much  upon  the  generosity  of  the  court,  and  upon  the  sup- 
posed importance  of  the  witness  summoned  in  the  case. 

Another  point  to  be  noticed  is  that,  where  a  toxicologist  has 
been  employed,  either  by  the  State,  or  by  a  private  party,  to 
make  a  chemical  analysis,  in  a  case  of  suspected  poisoning, 
he  should  invariably  stipulate  beforehand  about  the  payment 
of  his  fees ;  otherwise,  he  will  very  likely  be  forgotten  or 
totally  ignored  after  the  trial  is  over.  He  should  remember 
that  no  subpoena  can  compel  him  to  render  this  service.  It 
is  perfectly  voluntary  on  his  part  He  may  decline  it  alto- 
gether, if  he  so  pleases.  If  he  agrees  to  undertake  it,  he  is  at 
liberty  to  state  his  own  terms.  But,  as  the  result  of  a  some- 
what extended  experience,  we  would  caution  him  as  to  how 
he  makes  his  agreement.  For  example,  it  is  a  very  common 
practice  in  this  country,  in  a  case  of  suspected  poisoning, 
after  an  inquest  has  been  held,  for  the  district  attorney  of 
the  county  to  send  the  viscera  supposed  to  contain  the  poison 
to  some  reliable  chemist,  accompanied  by  a  polite  request 
to  him  to  perform  the  analysis  with  the  utmost  possible 
expedition,  and  adding,  that  an  adequate  (or  perhaps  it  is 
worded,  reasonable]  compensation  will  be  paid  him  by  the 
county  for  his  services.  Probably  this  letter  will  be  accom- 
panied by  another  from  some  medical  man,  who  has  per- 
formed the  post-mortem  examination,  and  who  has  recom- 
mended his  chemical  friend  to  the  authorities,  as  the  proper 
person  to  make  the  analysis.  Let  him  be  cautious  how  he 
becomes  a  party  in  this  transaction.  Without  any  intention 
on  the  part  of  any  one  to  wrong  him,  he  will  almost  cer- 
tainly be  wronged,  unless  he  is  very  careful  how  he  acts.  Sup- 
pose him  to  be  young  in  the  business :  he  enters  upon  the 
work  ardently  and  diligently;  he  devotes  probably  a  week 
or  two  to  the  analysis;  the  result  is  communicated  to  the 
law-officer  in  due  form ;  he  goes  to  court,  and  spends  an- 
other week  or  two  at  the  trial,  where  he  delivers  his  evi- 
dence— itself,  no  trifle;  on  this  evidence  mainly  will  depend 
the  conviction  or  the  acquittal  of  the  prisoner — his  life,  or 
his  death !  After  the  trial  is  over,  he  is  probably  congratu- 
lated on  his  skill  and  ability  as  a  toxicologist ;  but  when  the 
question  of  payment  comes  up,  difficulties  thickly  beset  his 


128  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

path.  His  friend  the  district  attorney  has  no  authority,  or 
funds  at  his  disposal,  to  pay  him  ;  the  county  commissioners, 
or  some  analogous  board,  must  first  meet,  and  vote  his 
compensation.  From  the  material  usually  composing  such 
"  boards,"  who  would  expect  that  a  fair  or  proper  apprecia- 
tion would  be  put  upon  his  really  valuable  and  scientific 
services  ?  They  will,  in  all  probability,  vote  him  a  sum  about 
equal  to  what  they  pay  for  some  petty  mechanic's  work  done 
for  the  corporation — possibly  about  the  fifth,  or  the  tenth,  of 
what  he  is  justly  entitled  to ;  and,  sad  for  the  poor  expert, 
there  is  no  redress  I 

The  above  is  no  mere  fancy  sketch  :  it  has  its  counterpart, 
we  venture  to  say,  in  the  experience  of  nearly  every  toxi- 
cologist  in  our  land.  What,  then,  should  he  do  to  secure 
himself  against  such  imposition  ?  His  only  remedy  is  to  insist 
in  advance  on  a  bond  duly  signed  by  all  the  commissioners,  or  by 
some  equally  responsible,  party,  for  the  payment  of  the  fee  agreed 
upon.  However  mercenary  such  a  course  may  appear  to  the 
uninitiated,  we  fearlessly  recommend  it,  after  some  personal 
experience,  and  also  as,  in  the  opinion  of  many  leading  toxi- 
cologists,  the  only  safe  one  for  the  professional  expert, 
either  for  his  own  protection,  or  for  the  protection  of  his 
profession.  Even  with  such  a  safeguard  it  has  happened  to 
the  author,  on  one  occasion,  to  be  actually  compelled  to  sue 
"the  commissioners"  of  a  certain  county  in  Pennsylvania,  in 
order  to  recover  a  fee  for  the  performance  of  a  chemical 
analysis  and  giving  evidence  in  court,  which  they  had  pre- 
viously solemnly  bound  themselves  to  pay  !  In  another  case, 
where  the  court  in  a  neighboring  State  had  ordered  a  toxico- 
logical  examination  to  be  made,  and  had  agreed  with  us  for 
the  compensation,  we  were  compelled  to  incur  the  expense 
of  a  lawsuit  against  the  county,  and  to  wait  for  more  than  a 
year  before  the  recovery  of  our  fee. 

A  case  occurred  in  a  certain  county  in  Pennsylvania,  a 
year  or  two  ago,  which  forcibly  illustrates  this  anomalous 
state  of  affairs.  A  woman  was  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison,  on  suspicion  of  having  poisoned  another  with  arsenic. 
The  body  of  the  deceased  was  examined  by  a  medical  friend 
of  the  author,  and  the  viscera  were  sent  to  Philadelphia  with  a 


COMPENSATION  TO  EXPERTS.  129 

request  for  us  to  make  the  chemical  analysis,  and  further 
stating  that  the  authorities  would  pay  all  necessary  expenses. 
"Warned  by  previous  experience,  an  answer  was  returned 
stating  that,  before  commencing  the  examination,  it  would 
be  necessary  for  the  county  commissioners  to  give  a  joint 
bond  for  the  payment  of  the  proper  fees.  After  various 
quibbles  on  the  part  of  the  authorities,  endeavoring  to  bring 
about  a  change  in  our  decision,  though  ineffectually,  we  put 
an  end  to  the  ridiculous  and  disgraceful  business  (which  oc- 
cupied fully  six  weeks)  by  returning  the  package  unopened, 
by  express;  the  other  party  taking  the  risk  of  loss  and 
breakage  by  public  conveyance !  During  all  this  time  a 
possibly  innocent  woman  was  immured  in  a  prison,  under  the 
dreadful  charge  of  murder ;  and  all  simply  because  of  the  par- 
simony of  the  county  officers !  "We  conceive  that  a  grievous 
wrong  was  here  perpetrated,  both  upon  the  person  merely  sus- 
pected of  guilt,  by  an  unnecessary  detention  in  custody,  and 
likewise  upon  the  cause  of  justice;  since,  if  the  prisoner  was 
guilty,  the  State  incurred  the  risk  of  being  unable  to  prove 
the  guilt  by  the  chemical  evidence,  in  consequence  of  the  long 
delay,  and  still  more  by  its  loose  way  of  dealing  with  the 
viscera  supposed  to  contain  the  poison,  in  exposing  them  to 
the  hazard  of  ordinary  transportation.  The  final  issue  of  this 
singular  case  is  unknown  to  us. 

An  expert  witness  for  the  defense  may  sometimes  be  sub- 
jected to  a  similar  fraudulent  deprivation  of  his  just  dues. 
A  single  instance  only  will  here  be  given.  About  two  years  ago 
a  case  was  tried  in  a  neighboring  county  where  a  man  waa 
indicted  for  poisoning  his  wife  with  arsenic.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  this  substance  was  discovered  by  the  analyst,  in  the 
body  of  the  deceased.  Prof.  R.  E.  Rogers  and  ourselves 
were  engaged  by  the  counsel  for  the  defense  as  expert  wit- 
nesses to  rebut  the  charge  of  poisoning,  by  showing  (as  was 
clearly  proved)  that  the  amount  of  absorbed  arsenic  dis- 
covered in  the  body  of  the  deceased  might  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for,  from  the  fact  of  her  having  taken  this  sub- 
stance as  a  medicine,  by  the  advice  of  her  physician  (who 
so  testified),  for  some  time  previous  to  her  death.  The 
prisoner  was  acquitted, — his  acquittal  being  unquestionably 


130  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  result  of  the  testimony  of  his  export  witnesses,  who 
were  dismissed  by  the  counsel  with  a  profusion  of  thanks, 
and  promises  of  speedy  remuneration,  after  being  detained 
at  the  trial  fully  ten  days,  at  great  personal  and  professional 
loss.  The  remainder  of  the  story  must  be  told,  although  it 
reflects  severely  against  a  member  of  the  bar, — one  of  the 
prisoner's  counsel.  Previous  to  the  trial,  this  individual, 
together  with  his  colleague,  waited  upon  us  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  our  services  as  experts,  and  it  was  represented 
that  we  should  be  adequately  remunerated  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  a  subpoena  was  served,  which  we  were,  of  course,  com- 
pelled to  obey.  Naturally  supposing  that  we  were  to  be 
dealt  with  in  good  faith,  we  both  gave  our  unremitting  atten- 
tion to  the  case.  Although  it  is  well  known  that  the  indi- 
vidual above  alluded  to  received  abundant  means  from  the 
prisoner  and  his  friends  for  the  express  purpose  of  paying 
his  expert  witnesses,  he  has  ignored  the  whole  matter,  taking 
refuge  under  the  wretched  pretext  that  no  legal  agreement 
had  been  entered  into  between  the  complainants  and  him- 
self! It  is  to  be  hoped  that  our  professional  brethren  will 
take  warning  against  similar  fraud  and  imposition. 

Another  subject  of  annoyance,  and  occasionally  of  posi- 
tive grievance,  to  the  "  expert"  witness,  is  the  rude  and  defi- 
ant tone  assumed  by  a  certain  class  of  lawyers  in  the  cross- 
examination.  Although  jt  is  commonly  understood  that  no 
gentleman  would  indulge  in  coarse  and  boisterous  bravado 
while  examining  a  scientific  witness,  yet  it  does  occasionally 
happen  that  a  barrister  is  betrayed  into  it.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  law  intrusts  almost  unlimited  powers  of  in- 
terrogation to  counsel,  for  the  purpose  of  eliciting  the  truth  ; 
but,  nevertheless,  there  are  bounds  beyond  which  he  should 
not  venture.  In  the  language  of  Chief-Justice  Erie,  alluding 
to  an  imputation  having  been  cast  by  counsel  upon  a  skilled 
witness  for  truthfulness:  "The  freedom  of  question  allowed 
to  the  bar  was  a  public  nuisance,  and  the  barrister  who  made 
such  an  imputation  ought  to  be  prosecuted."  "  In  his  expe- 
rience, he  had  seen  counsel  so  abuse  their  privilege,  that 
he  had  cordially  wished  a  power  could  be  instituted  that 
they  might  be  prosecuted  for  a  misdemeanor."  The  same 


RIGHTS    OF    EXPERTS    AS    WITNESSES.  131 

spirit  which  betrays  the  lawyer  into  the  fault  just  mentioned, 
will  further  lead  him  in  his  "forcible"  address  to  the  jury  to 
misrepresent  and  distort  medical  facts,  in  a  manner  wholly 
irreconcilable  with  truth. 

Prof.  Taylor  truly  remarks  (Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed.,  1873, 
p.  50) :  "  The  treatment  of  a  medical  witness,  in  passing 
through  the  ordeal  of  an  examination  at  a  criminal  trial, 
will  depend  very  much  upon  the  class  of  counsel  who  is 
opposed  to  him.  Assuming  that  he  is  properly  prepared 
for  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  and  that  the  questions  put  to 
him  are  answered  fairly  and  truly,  according  to  his  knowl- 
edge and  experience,  without  exaggeration  or  concealment, 
he  has  no  reason  to  fear  any  attempt  at  intimidation.  Bar- 
risters, for  the  most  part,  know  that  by  this  line  of  conduct 
they  lose  more  with  the  jury  than  they  gain  by  the  attempt 
to  confuse  the  witness."  "A  public  writer  in  commenting 
on  this  subject  says:  'But  the  hardest  and  most  unfair  part 
of  the  system  (of  cross-examination)  is  when  witnesses  have 
to  bear  a  loud  and  insulting  tone  or  gesture,  without  remon- 
strance or  retaliation.  A  counsel  may  very  plainly  imply 
that  a  respectable  witness  is  a  person  of  doubtful  character 
and  not  to  be  believed  on  oath,  or  that  he  is  ignorant,  and  a 
bungler  in  his  profession  ;  but  if  the  witness  retorts  that  the 
barrister's  eloquence  and  sympathies  are  hired,  or  if  he  gives 
vent  to  any  other  words  of  retaliation  in  his  natural  indigna- 
tion, the  court  is  against  him.'  Whatever  may  be  the  im- 
portance of  a  case  to  a  prisoner,  nothing  can  justify  the  put- 
ting of  questions  in  a  loud  and  insulting  tone  to  a  skilled 
professional  witness."  Those  who  were  present  at  the  two 
celebrated  Wharton  trials  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1872  and 
1873,  will  readily  recall  a  counterpart  of  the  above  descrip- 
tion of  the  barrister  of  "  a  loud  and  insulting  tone." 

Prof.  Taylor  (loc.  cit.,  p.  51),  in  further  reprobating  this 
irritating  and  uncourteous  manner  of  examining  the  witness, 
remarks  :  "  It  may  be  that  criminal  cases  fall  more  into  the 
hands  of  the  second  class  of  barristers  to  whom  Mr.  Stephen 
alludes, — namely,  those  who  disgrace  a  noble  profession." 

The  reader  will  do  well  to  consult  Dr.  Elwell's  medico- 
legal  treatise  on  "  Malpractice  and  Medical  Evidence,"  also 


132  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Dr.  Taylor's  large  work  on  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Med- 
ical Jurisprudence,"  1873,  for  fuller  details  in  reference  to 
important  points  in  connection  with  Medical  Evidence. 


CHAPTER    X. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    POISONS. 

AMONG  the  numerous  classifications  of  Poisons  that  have 
been  proposed  at  different  times,  two  only  need  claim  atten- 
tion. One  of  these  is  founded  on  the  source,  or  natural  king- 
dom from  which  the  poison  is  derived,  and  is  expressed  by 
the  two  classes  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Poisons;  and  also 
by  those  of  Mineral,  Vegetable,  and  Animal  Poisons.  The 
other  classification,  which  may  be  termed  the  physiological, 
has  reference  to  the  effects  of  poisons  upon  the  healthy 
animal  system.  To  this  latter  we  give  the  preference,  as 
being  most  in  accordance  with  practical  usefulness.  This 
method  of  classification  was  originally  proposed  by  Fodcre, 
and  adopted  by  Orfila.  It  divides  poisons  into  four  groups: 
Irritants,  Narcotics,  Narcotico-acrids,  and  Septics  or  Putre- 
factives.  This  arrangement  has  been  substantially  followed, 
with  certain  modifications,  by  most  modern  authorities.  The 
principle  on  which  it  is  based  is  undoubtedly  the  correct  one, 
viz.,  the  mode  in  which  poisons  affect  the  human  system  in  its  nor- 
mal or  healthy  state.  Like  any  other  system  proposed,  this 
classification  is  open  to  some  objections:  thus,  it  necessarily 
separates  from  one  another  substances  derived  from  the  same 
natural  kingdom.  But  this  objection  has  but  little  practical 
weight,  and  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  advantages 
gained.  Tardieu,  following  out  the  above  principle,  divides 
poisons  into  five  classes:  1,  Irritants  and  Corrosives;  2, 
Hyposthenisants;  3,Stupefacients;  4, Narcotics;  and  5,Nervo- 
sthenics.  Dr.  Taylor's  division  is  into  two  classes :  1,  Irri- 
tants; 2,  Neurotics;  the  latter  being  subdivided  into  (a) 
Cerebral,  (b)  Spinal,  and  (c)  Cerebro-spinal.  Professor  Guy's 
classification  is  "a  convenient  compromise  between  the  claims 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   POISONS.  133 

of  physiology  and  natural  history."  He  makes  two  great 
divisions:  1,  Inorganic;  2,  Organic  Poisons.  The  Inorganic 
are  subdivided  into  (a)  Corrosive,  and  (6)  Irritant.  The  Or- 
ganic into  (a)  Irritant;  (b)  Affecting  the  brain,  (c)  Affecting 
the  spinal  cord,  (d)  Affecting  the  heart,  (e)  Affecting  the 
lungs. 

The  classification  adopted  in  the  present  treatise  is  that  of 
Dr.  Taylor,  with  a  few  modifications,  as  being  the  most  sim- 
ple, and,  at  the  same  time,  sufficiently  comprehensive. 

I.  IRRITANTS. — This  class  of  poisons  includes  all  those  sub- 
stances whose  action  is  exerted  especially  upon  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal.     Their  effects  are  gener- 
ally sufficiently  well  marked  :  these  are  an  acrid  and  burning 
taste  on  swallowing,  nausea,  vomiting,  purging,  great  pain  in 
the  abdomen,  increased  by  pressure,  cramps  of  the  stomach  ; 
the  matters  vomited  and  purged  being  frequently  mingled 
with  blood.      In   fatal  cases,  the  autopsy  reveals  marks  of 
great  irritation  and  inflammation,  and,  as  a  result  of  the 
latter,  ulceration,  perforation,  and  gangrene. 

The  Irritants  may  be  subdivided  into  two  orders:  1,  Sim- 
ple Irritants;  and  2,  Irritants  possessing  remote  specific  prop- 
erties. They  may  further  be  separated  into  three  sections, 
depending  on  the  source  from  which  they  are  procured,  viz., 
Mineral,  Vegetable,  and  Animal;  and  the  Mineral  are  again 
subdivided  into  (a)  Non-metallic,  and  (6)  Metallic  poisons. 
Some  of  the  irritant  poisons  possess  corrosive  properties — 
destroying  the  tissues  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  by 
virtue  of  chemical  affinities.  Examples  of  this  are  afforded 
in  the  mineral  acids,  the  caustic  alkalies,  corrosive  sublimate, 
etc.  The  corrosives,  as  a  rule,  manifest  their  action  imme- 
diately ;  the  other  irritants  more  slowly.  Although  an  irritant 
may  never  act  as  a  corrosive,  a  corrosive  will  always  act  as  a 
simple  irritant,  if  diluted. 

II.  NEUROTICS.— rThe  second  division  of  poisons  includes 
those  whose  action  is  especially  directed  to  the  great  nervous 
centres — the  brain  and  spinal  cord.     The  symptoms  mani- 
fested are  totally  distinct  from  those  usually  occasioned  by 
Irritants.     They  consist  of  drowsiness,  headache,  giddiness, 
delirium,  stupor,  and  sometimes  convulsions.  In  someexcep- 


134  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

tional  instances,  an  irritant  impression  seems  likewise  to  be 
produced  on  the  alimentary  canal.  A  natural  subdivision  of 
this  class  is  into — 1,  Cerebral;  2,  Spinal;  and  3,  Cerebro-spinal. 
The  first  of  these  comprises  (a)  the  well-known  Narcotics,  of 
which  opium  is  the  type,  and  (6)  the  Anaesthetics ;  the  second 
(Spinal)  includes  those  which  act  primarily  and  specially  upon 
the  spinal  cord, — of  which  strychnia  is  a  notable  example ; 
the  third  (Cerebro-spinal)  includes  such  as  influence  both 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  producing  delirium,  coma,  convulsions, 
and  paralysis, — of  which  conia,  aconitina,  and  atropia  are  ex- 
amples. The  cerebro-spinal  order  of  Neurotics  embraces  by 
far  the  largest  proportion  of  this  second  class  of  poisons.  For 
facility  of  description  and  arrangement,  they  may  be  grouped 
as  follows:  1 , Deliriants ;  2,  Depressants;  3,Asthenics,  or  those 
which  occasion  death  by  shock.  The  above  arrangement  is  to 
a  great  extent  an  arbitrary  one,  and  is,  of  course,  necessarily 
imperfect. 

As  already  stated,  the  boundary-line  between  these  classes 
of  poisons  cannot  always  be  clearly  drawn.  For  while  some 
of  the  irritants  will  occasionally  produce  symptoms  that 
would  more  naturally  be  expected  from  the  neurotics — such 
as  paralysis,  convulsions,  delirium,  and  coma, — so,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  neurotics  may  at  times  be  attended  by  the 
symptoms  of  an  irritant  poison.  It  is,  of  course,  very  im- 
portant to  bear  these  facts  in  mind,  in  diagnosticating  any 
particular  case  of  poisoning. 

TABLE   OF   CLASSIFICATION. 

CLASS   I.      j  Order  1.    IRRITANTS  PROPER,  j  MINERAL.       { 

IRRITANTS.  |   Order  2.    IRRITANTS  PRODUCING  RE-  1  VEGETABLE. 


MOTE   SPECIFIC   EFFECTS.  ANIMAL. 


CLASS  II. 
NEUROTICS. 


Order  1.     CEREBRAL,     f  J*1"00"0?: 

.  I  Anaesthetics. 

Order  2.    SPINAL,  or  TETANICS. 

|    Deliriants. 

Order  3.    CEREBRO-SPINAL.     \   Depressants. 
Astheuics. 


IRRITANT    POISONS.  135 


CHAPTER    XL 

CLASS    I. 
IRRITANT    POISONS. 

IRRITANT  POISONS  are  here  understood  to  include  those 
whose  action  is  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  exerted  upon  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  causing  an  irri- 
tation more  or  less  violent,  which  often  amounts  to  the  most 
decided  inflammation, to  corrosion,  and  even  to  complete  de- 
struction of  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The 
term  corrosive  is  applied  to  such  substances  as  occasion  the 
more  violent  eifects  last  mentioned.  Nearly  all  the  ordinary 
irritant  poisons  belong  to  the  inorganic  kingdom  ;  a  few  are 
found  among  organic  bodies,  being  chiefly  of  vegetable  origin, 
as  the  drastics. 

Whilst  most  of  the  poisons  classed  together  under  the  head 
of  irritants  appear  to  produce  their  effects  solely  in  a  local 
manner,  i.e.  by  setting  up  an  inflammation  and  its  conse- 
quences in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  there  are  some  which, 
in  addition  to  this,  do  undoubtedly  produce  a  remote  specific 
effect,  that  seems  especially  directed  to  the  nervous  centres, 
occasioning  symptoms  not  explicable  by  their  merely  local 
action.  Examples  of  these  are  afforded  in  arsenic,  tartar 
emetic,  salts  of  mercury,  copper,  oxalic  acid,  etc.  To  this 
latter  subdivision  Tardieu  assigns  the  name  of  hyposthenisants. 
Their  peculiarities  will  be  noticed  under  their  respective 
heads.  Irritants  may  very  properly  be  considered  under  the 
two  subdivisions  of  (1)  Irritants  proper,  and  (2)  Irritants  oc- 
casioning remote  specific  effects. 

Common  symptoms. — A  pungent,  hot,  or  even  burning  taste 
in  the  mouth,  sometimes  metallic;  a  sense  of  burning  in  the 
throat,  extending  to  the  stomach  ;  pain,  more  or  less  violent, 
in  the  stomach,  often  extending  over  the  abdomen,  which  is 
tender  on  pressure ;  almost  always,  violent  vomiting,  accom- 


136  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

panied  with  nausea  and  retching,  occurs  very  early,  the 
matters  vomited  being  often  mixed  with  glairy  mucus  and 
blood;  generally  there  is  painful  purging,  sometimes  of 
bloody  matters;  swallowing  is  often  very  painful;  there  is 
excessive  thirst;  the  abdomen  becomes  tumid ;  the  pulse  is 
small  and  very  frequent;  the  urine  is  usually  suppressed; 
finally,  the  vital  powers  give  way,  and  death  takes  place  in  a 
period  ranging  from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  The  above 
symptoms  will  be  recognized  as  those  which  (with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions) usually  attend  a  severe  case  of  gastro-enteritis.  In 
truth,  this  is  the  disorder  produced  by  this  division  of  the 
irritant  poisons.  The  action  of  the  corrosives,  in  their  un- 
diluted state,  is,  of  course,  much  more  violent  than  that  of 
the  ordinary  irritants,  since  they  occasion  immediate  de- 
struction and  disorganization  of  the  tissues,  by  virtue  of 
their  chemical  affinities.  Thus,  after  swallowing  one  of  the 
strong  mineral  acids  or  alkalies,  we  find  among  the  matters 
vomited,  shreds  of  mucous  membrane,  detached  from  the 
oesophagus,  through  the  corrosive  action  of  the  poison. 

Where  the  dose  of  the  irritant  or  corrosive  is  small,  and 
the  poison  diluted,  the  effects  are  naturally  much  less  violent. 
Partial  or  complete  recovery  may  occur ;  but  very  frequently, 
especially  in  the  case  of  a  corrosive,  the  patient  dies  after 
months  or  years  of  suffering,  from  stricture  of  the  gullet, — 
the  result  of  the  morbid  action  of  the  poison  on  the  lining 
mucous  membrane  of  this  organ. 

The  post-mortem  lesions  occasioned  by  these  poisons  are 
generally  confined  to  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane. 
In  the  case  of  the  coirosives,  the  mucous  lining  of  the  lips, 
cheeks,  and  throat  exhibits  patches  of  different  colors,  occa- 
sioned by  the  contact  of  the  powerful  agent;  this  membrane 
is  softened,  and  reduced  to  a  pulpy  condition,  and  in  places  is 
entirely  detached.  In  the  stomach,  there  may  be  one  or  more 
perforations,  through  which  the  contents  have  escaped  into 
the  peritoneal  cavity;  around  these  openings  the  tissue  will 
probably  be  softened  and  corroded.  The  lining  membrane 
of  the  intestines  exhibits,  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  marks 
of  the  same  violent  action.  The  blood  is  dark-colored  and 
fluid. 


POISONING    BY    SULPHURIC   ACID.  137 

SECTION  I. 
POISONING    BY   SULPHURIC  ACID. 

In  the  five  years  1852  to  1856,  seventy-seven  cases  of 
poisoning  by  the  mineral  acids  were  registered  in  Great 
Britain  :  of  these,  seventy-three  were  by  sulphuric  acid,  two 
by  nitric  acid,  and  two  by  hydrochloric  acid.  (Guy's  Forensic 
Medicine,  p.  394.) 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  or  Oil  of  Vitriol,  in  the  concentrated  state,  is 
a  heavy,  oily-looking  liquid,  usually  of  a  light-brownish  color ; 
sp.  gr.  1.845;  of  a  strong  acid  taste  and  powerful  acid  reac- 
tion ;  it  speedily  chars  organic  substances.  When  diluted  with 
water,  it  loses  its  oily  character,  and  its  power  to  destroy 
organic  substances.  When  mixed  with  one-half  its  weight 
of  water,  it  occasions  very  considerable  elevation  of  temper- 
ature. 

Although  instances  of  poisoning  by  this  acid  are  far  more 
frequent  than  by  either  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  it  is  com- 
paratively rarely  administered  with  criminal  intent.  It  is  far 
more  frequently  taken  by  suicides,  or  accidentally.  Children 
have  been  destroyed  by  its  being  poured  down  their  throats; 
and  several  cases  are  reported  where  persons  in  a  state  of  in- 
toxication were  murdered  in  a  similar  manner.  At  least  two 
cases  have  been  reported  in  which  it  was  administered  by  the 
rectum,  through  mistake;  also  one  case  in  which  it  was  in- 
jected into  the  vagina  intentionally,  with  a  view  of  procuring 
abortion. 

In  the  case  of  infants,  the  act  is  generally  homicidal,  and 
possibly  accidental ;  in  young  children,  accidental ;  in  adults, 
nearly  always  suicidal.  Sulphuric  acid  is  also  employed  by 
malicious  persons,  by  throwing  it  upon  others,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  disfigurement  of  their  person  or  destruction  of  their 
dress. 

Symptoms. — When  swallowed  in  the  concentrated  state  of 
oil  of  vitriol,  the  symptoms  come  on  immediately.  In  the  act 
of  swallowing,  the  person  experiences  a  severe  burning  pain 
in  the  throat  and  gullet,  and  reaching  to  the  stomach,  pro- 
ducing the  greatest  agony.  There  is  an  escape  of  gaseous 


138  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

and  frothy  matter  from  the  mouth,  followed  by  retching  and 
vomiting  of  matters  that  are  powerfully  acid,  mixed  with 
shreds  of  mucous  membrane,  and  altered  blood  of  a  dark- 
brown  or  black  color.  The  lips  and  inside  of  the  mouth  are 
highly  corroded,  presenting  a  whitish  appearance,  resembling 
soaked  parchment.  Around  the  lips  and  on  the  neck  may 
be  found  spots  of  a  brown  color,  due  to  the  acid.  There  is 
great  difficulty  in  speaking  and  swallowing;  the  mouth  is 
filled  with  viscid  mucus.  The  pain  in  the  abdomen  is  ex- 
cruciating; the  stomach  excessively  irritable,  rejecting  every- 
thing swallowed.  As  the  case  advances,  the  respiration 
becomes  embarrassed;  the  skin  cold  and  clammy;  the  coun- 
tenance haggard  ;  the  pulse  rapid  and  feeble.  The  bowels 
are  usually  constipated,  and  the  urine  scanty.  The  intel- 
lect generally  remains  unimpaired  to  the  last.  Death  oc- 
curs in  a  period  varying  from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days  or 
weeks. 

The  above  are  the  usual  symptoms  attending  an  ordinary 
case  of  poisoning  by  sulphuric  acid;  but  there  are  several 
important  exceptions  to  be  noticed.  Thus,  when  the  acid 
has  been  poured  from  a  vial  or  a  spoon  into  the  back  part 
of  the  throat  of  a  child  while  lying  on  its  back,  as  in  a  case 
mentioned  by  Dr.  Taylor,  the  mouth  may  entirely  escape  the 
chemical  action  of  the  poison.  In  other  cases,  its  force  ap- 
pears to  be  spent  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  causing 
rapid  and  fatal  asphyxia,  and  none  of  the  poison  getting 
into  the  stomach.  Again,  cases  are  reported  in  which  the 
vomiting  was  delayed  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and  was 
then  excited  only  by  the  liquids  administered.  The  quantity 
of  the  concentrated  acid  swallowed  was  two  ounces.  (Ed. 
Month.  Jour.,  1850,  p.  538.) 

If  the  acid  be  taken  in  the  diluted  "state,  its  effects, 
although  the  same  in  kind,  are  less  in  degree,  and  they  are 
less  prompt  in  appearing.  The  degree  of  dilution  may  be 
so  great  as  entirely  to  prevent  its  acting  as  a  corrosive;  its 
effects  are  then  merely  those  of  an  ordinary  irritant. 

The  matters  first  vomited  contain  the  greater  part  of  the 
poison,  and  are  highly  acid.  If  they  fall  upon  marble,  as 
on  a  hearthstone,  they  will  occasion  effervescence,  from  the 


POISONING   BY   SULPHURIC   ACID. — FATAL   PERIOD.         139 

escape  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  stone.  Should  they  fall 
upon  articles  of  clothing,  they  produce  spots  or  stains,  which 
may  subsequently  become  valuable  evidence  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  poison.  The  color  of  these  stains  depends  on 
the  color  of  the  stuff:  thus,  on  black  cloth  they  are  at  first  red, 
and  afterwards  brownish  red,  and  they  retain  their  moisture 
for  a  long  time.  On  other  colored  substances  they  produce 
a  bright-red  color;  and  on  some  others,  again,  a  yellowish 
stain. 

The  question  whether  a  person,  after  having  swallowed  a 
fatal  dose  of  this  acid,  can  exert  any  voluntary  powers  of  loco- 
motion, has  been  settled  in  the  affirmative  in  several  cases. 
These  are  reported  as  having  been  able  to  walk  a  consider- 
able distance,  and  one  as  even  going  up  the  stairs  of  a  hos- 
pital. Death  frequently  comes  on  suddenly,  after  a  seeming 
remission  of  the  severe  symptoms. 

Fatal  period. — In  fatal  cases,  death  commonly  takes  place 
in  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  As  just  mentioned,  it 
may  occur  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  when  the  patient  has 
been  supposed  to  be  recovering.  In  cases  of  perforation  of 
the  stomach,  it  is  more  rapid — in  four  hours;  and  where  its 
action  is  spent  upon  the  rima  glottidis  at  the  opening  of  the 
larynx,  the  fatal  result  may  be  almost  immediate,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  child  mentioned  by  SirR.  Christison  (On  Poisons, 
p.  132),  where  it  was  ascertained  that  none  of  the  poison  had 
entered  the  stomach.  Other  cases  are  reported  in  which 
death  occurred  in  one,  two,  and  three  hours.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  fatal  result,  even  in  acute  cases,  may  be  protracted 
for  several  days.  This  difference  in  duration  may  doubtless 
be  ascribed  to  the  full  or  empty  condition  of  the  stomach  at 
the  time  of  swallowing  the  acid,  and  also,  to  the  fact  of  the 
immediate  rejection,  by  vomiting,  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
poison,  or  the  contrary. 

In  chronic  cases,  when  the  individual  has  escaped  the  im- 
mediate fatal  consequences,  death  may  not  result  till  after 
the  lapse  of  several  months;  and  it  would  seem  to  be  imme- 
diately owing  to  inanition,  from  stricture  of  the  oesophagus, 
or  from  chronic  inflammation  of  the  stomach.  The  most 
protracted  case  on  record  is  the  familiar  one  mentioned  by 


140  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Dr.  Beck  (Medical  Jurisprudence,  ii.  p.  472),  in  which  the 
patient  died  tico  years  after  taking  the  acid,  from  stricture  of 
the  oesophagus. 

Fatal  quantity. — The  smallest  fatal  dose  for  an  adult  re- 
corded is  one  drachm, — a  case  quoted  by  Sir  R.  Christison, — 
where  a  stout  young  man  died  in  seven  days  after  swallowing 
this  amount.  The  same  authority  mentions  another  case,  of 
an  infant,  which  was  destroyed  by  swallowing  half  a  drachm 
of  the  concentrated  acid.  The  danger  appears  to  depend 
more  on  the  degree  of  concentration  of  the  poison  than  on 
its  absolute  quantity.  Several  cases  are  recorded  of  recovery 
after  swallowing  as  much  as  one,  two,  and,  in  one  instance 
mentioned  by  Dr.  Beck  (loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.  p.  468),  four  ounces  of 
the  strong  acid. 

Treatment. — On  account  of  the  immediate  corrosive  action 
of  this  acid,  chemical  antidotes  can  rarely  be  employed  in 
time  to  prevent  serious  injury.  These  antidotes  consist  of 
solutions  of  the  alkaline  carbonates  in  water  or  milk,  mag- 
nesia or  chalk  suspended  in  milk,  soap-suds,  the  scrapings 
from  a  whitewashed  wall  (in  the  absence  of  the  other  articles), 
and  oily  emulsions.  Dr.  Taylor  considers  the  solutions  of  the 
alkaline  carbonates  preferable  to  either  chalk  or  magnesia, 
in  consequence  of  the  insoluble  particles  of  the  latter  ad- 
hering closely  to  the  coats  of  the  stomach,  and  thus  not 
coming  into  immediate  contact  with  the  acid.  Sometimes 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  the  patient  swallow,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disorganized  condition  of  his  throat:  in  such 
a  case  the  very  cautious  use  of  the  stomach-pump  may  be 
advisable ;  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  perforation  of 
the  O3sophagus.  In  cases  of  threatened  suffocation,  trache- 
otomy should  be  performed.  In  all  cases  it  will  be  necessary 
to  combat  the  violent  inflammatory  symptoms  with  the  usual 
appropriate  remedies.  Among  the  symptoms  mentioned  as 
having  occurred,  particularly  in  some  of  the  non-fatal  cases, 
is  profuse  salivation ;  and,  in  some  instances,  masses  of  false 
membrane,  moulded  into  the  form  and  size  of  the  oesophagus, 
have  been  expelled  by  coughing. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — In  poisoning  by  sulphuric  acid, 
it  may  happen,  as  already  observed,  that  the  lining  mem- 


SULPHURIC    ACID. — POST-MORTEM    APPEARANCES.  141 

brane  of  the  mouth  entirely  escapes  the  corrosive  action, 
owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  poison  was  administered, 
viz.,  pouring  it  from  a  spoon  far  back  into  the  throat;  so, 
on  the  other  hand,  fatal  cases  have  occurred  in  which  the 
corrosive  action  has  been  entirely  confined  to  the  mouth 
and  throat,  and  the  stomach  has  completely  escaped.  In  all 
cases  a  thorough  examination  of  the  whole  alimentary  tract 
should  be  made,  from  the  mouth  downwards.  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  including  the  tongue, 
will  be  often  found  whitish,  thickened,  and  softened.  The 
lining  of  the  oasophagus  may  be  greatly  corroded,  detached 
in  folds,  and  of  an  ashy-gray  color.  The  stomach,  when  not 
perforated,  is  collapsed  and  contracted.  Its  contents  are 
often  of  a  dark-brown  color  and  tarry  consistence,  composed 
of  mucus  and  altered  blood.  They  may,  or  may  not,  be 
acid,  depending  on  the  time  elapsed  and  the  antidotes  ad- 
ministered. The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  exhibits 
ull  the  evidences  of  intense  inflammation,  such  as  striae  of 
deep  redness,  softening,  and  thickening.  Portions  of  it  may 
be  also  detached.  When  perforation  has  occurred,  the  coats 
are  softened,  and  the  edges  of  the  aperture  are  apt  to  be 
black  and  irregular.  If  the  contents  have  escaped  into 
the  abdomen,  the  surrounding  parts  are  blackened  and  cor- 
roded by  the  poison.  It  is  probable  that,  in  some  instances, 
the  perforation  of  the  stomach  takes  place  after  death,  from 
the  chemical  action  of  the  acid. 

If  the  case  is  much  protracted,  the  small  intestines  may 
exhibit  very  decided  marks  of  corrosion,  and  even  of  per- 
foration. It  should  be  remembered  that  after  death  from 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  although  no  marks  of  corrosion  may 
be  discovered,  the  evidences  of  inflammation  will  be  suffi- 
ciently distinct.  An  instructive  case  is  quoted  by  Dr.  Taylor 
from  Journ.  de  Chimie  Med.,  1846,  ii.  17,  where  an  infant 
aged  two  months  died  from  the  effects  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  There  was  an  entire  absence  of  all  marks  of  corrosion 
on  the  lips,  tongue,  and  throat,  oesophagus,  and  stomach; 
and  no  very  great  amount  of  inflammation  was  observed  in 
the  stomach.  Moreover,  no  trace  of  the  acid  could  be  dis- 
covered in  this  organ  by  chemical  analysis ;  but  it  was  proved 

10 


142  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

to  exist  abundantly  in  spots  on  the  clothing.  The  prisoner 
was  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  hard  labor  for  life. 

According  to  Casper  (Foren.  Med.,  vol.  ii.  p.  58),  the  bodies 
of  persons  poisoned  by  sulphuric  acid  resist  decomposition 
for  a  long  time.  This  effect  is  attributed  by  him  to  the  neu- 
tralizing of  the  ammonia  resulting  from  the  putrefaction, 
by  the  acid. 

Absorption  and  elimination. — As  regards  the  question  whether 
this  acid  is  absorbed  into  the  circulation  and  eliminated  by 
the  emunctories,  the  cases  and  experiments  reported  go  to 
prove  the  affirmative.  Casper  states  that  in  cases  exam- 
ined by  him,  the  blood,  in  every  instance,  had  a  cherry-red 
color,  was  of  a  ropy  consistence,  and  had  an  acid  reaction. 
A  case  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Beck  (Med.  Jurisp.,  ii.  p.  475)  of 
a  pregnant  woman  dying  from  the  effects  of  sulphuric  acid, 
in  whom  the  am ni otic  fluid,  as  well  as  that  of  the  pleura,  peri- 
toneum, heart,  and  bladder  of  the  foetus,  had  an  acid  reaction. 
It  has  also  been  detected  in  the  urine,  during  life. 

Chemical  analysis. — The  concentrated  acid  (oil  of  vitriol) 
possesses  the  following  properties:  1.  It  immediately  chars 
and  blackens  organic  bodies,  such  as  wood,  cork,  sugar,  etc. 
2.  Boiled  with  wood  chips,  copper,  or  mercury,  it  gives  off 
sulphurous  acid  fumes,  easily  recognized  by  their  odor,  and 
by  their  bleaching  effect  on  colors.  3.  When  mixed  with 
its  own  volume  of  water,  it  gives  out  great  heat,  raising  the 
temperature  nearly  to  212°  F. 

The  diluted  acid  is  readily  detected  by  a  soluble  salt  of 
barium — either  the  chloride  or  the  nitrate.  To  the  suspected 
liquid  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  are  first  added,  and  then  a 
little  of  the  solution  of  chloride  of  barium;  an  immediate 
copious  white  precipitate  subsides — the  sulphate  of  baryta: 
this  is  insoluble  in  all  acids  and  alkalies.  But  the  mere 
obtaining  of  such  a  white  precipitate  is  not  positice  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid,  since  selenic  and  hydrofluo- 
silicic  acids  produce  similar  results  with  a  barytic  salt.  In 
order  to  confirm  this  test,  the  precipitate  should  be  dried, 
and  thoroughly  mixed,  either  with  twice  its  weight  of  pow- 
dered charcoal,  or  with  equal  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda  and 
cyanide  of  potassium,  or  with  four  or  five  times  its  weight 


SULPHURIC    ACID. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  143 

of  well-dried  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  and  heated  to  red- 
ness on  platinum-foil,  or  in  a  reduction-tube.  This  converts 
the  sulphate  into  a  sulphuret:  when  cooled,  the  residue  is 
moistened  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  when  the  odor  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  immediately  recognized, — proving 
the  presence  of  sulphur  in  the  original  acid.  Or,  the  residue 
may  be  put  upon  a  moistened  glazed  card  (containing  carbo- 
nate of  lead),  when  it  will  produce  a  brown  or  black  stain 
(sulphide  of  lead).  Or,  the  residue  may  be  put  into  a  watch- 
glass  and  moistened  with  the  dilute  acid,  and  covered  over 
with  another  glass  containing  a  fragment  of  paper  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  :  the  latter  will  very  speedily 
assume  a  dark-brown  color.  By  any  of  the  above  means 
this  acid  can  be  positively  recognized,  even  in  very  small 
pVoportions.  A  solution  containing  only  the  one-twenty- 
five-thousandth  part  of  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  is  precip- 
itated; and  less  than  the  one-hundredth  part  of  a  grain  of 
the  acid  will  yield  sufficient  precipitate  to  admit  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  confirming  test.  (Wormley.) 

If  the  precipitate  in  the  above  cases  had  been  due  to 
selenic  or  hydrofluosilicic  acid,  on  ignition  there  would,  of 
course,  be  no  production  of  a  sulphuret;  which  would  prove 
the  absence  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Two  circumstances  require  attention  in  the  application  of 
the  baryta  test :  (1)  this  test  yields  a  similar  result  when  ap- 
plied to  a  solution  of  any  sulphate ;  (2)  it  throws  down  also  a 
white  precipitate  with  several  other  acids  when  in  combina- 
tion, e.g.  carbonic,  phosphoric,  boric,  oxalic,  etc. 

In  regard  to  the  first,  while  it  is  true  that  a  solution  of 
alum,  of  Epsom  salt,  or  of  any  other  sulphate  will  precipitate 
chloride  of  barium,  the  presence  of  any  saline  matter  may 
easily  be  detected  by  slowly  evaporating  a  drop  or  two  of  the 
original  solution  on  a  watch-glass,  when  a  residue  will  be 
left  from  a  saline  solution;  whereas  in  a  purely  acid  solution 
there  will  be  none.  But  a  case  may  present  where,  along  with 
free  sulphuric  acid,  there  is  present  some  medicinal  sulphate, 
such  as  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salt.  Here,  the  simple  baryta 
test  would  lead  to  an  erroneous  inference  as  to  the  actual 
amount  of  free  sulphuric  acid  present.  The  error  may  be 


144  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

obviated  by  precipitating  all  the  free  acid  by  means  of  finely- 
powdered  carbonate  of  baryta,  first  warming  tbe  liquid  ;  until 
effervescence  ceases  (the  carbonate  does  not  decompose  any 
sulphate  that  may  be  present).  The  precipitated  sulphate 
of  baryta  will  represent  the  free  sulphuric  acid  only.  Again, 
it  might  happen  that  in  a  suspected  acid  solution  there  is 
present  some  sulphate,  as  Epsom  salt,  and  some  other  acid, 
as  citric,  tartaric,  etc. :  here,  of  course,  baryta  would  give  the 
appropriate  reaction  ;  but  the  fact  of  the  absence  of  free  sul- 
phuric acid  can  be  shown  here  by  first  evaporating  a  portion 
of  the  liquid  to  dryness:  a  residue  will  indicate  some  saline 
substance.  The  further  mode  of  proceeding  will  be  explained 
post  (p.  145). 

(2)  As  regards  the  precipitate  occasioned  by  baryta  in  salts 
containing  phosphoric,  carbonic,  oxalic,  etc.,  acids,  a  simple 
test  will  serve  immediately  to  distinguish  between  these  and 
a  sulphate  of  baryta:  the  addition  of  either  hj^drochloric  or 
nitric  acid  will  instantly  redissolve  the  former,  while  no  effect 
is  produced  on  the  latter. 

Another  delicate  test  for  the  presence  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  is  veratria.  This  alkaloid,  according  to  Prof.  Wormley 
(Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  112),  is  much  more  delicate  than 
the  cane-sugar  test  of  Runge :  it  will  detect  with  certainty 
so  small  a  quantity  as  the  one-thousandth  of  a  grain.  A 
small  portion  of  the  alkaloid  is  introduced  into  the  diluted 
acid,  and  carefully  evaporated  to  dryness;  a  beautiful  crimson 
deposit  is  left.  Moreover,  as  this  test  produces  no  effect  with 
neutral  sulphates,  but  only  with  the  free  acid,  it  serves  to 
distinguish  the  latter  from  the  acid  in  combination. 

Detection  in  organic  matters. — These,  if  thick  and  turbid, 
should  be  boiled  with  distilled  water,  and  filtered  through 
paper  supported  by  muslin.  Mere  color  is  no  obstacle,  pro- 
vided the  solution  is  clear.  A  measured  quantity  of  the 
liquid,  concentrated,  if  necessar}*,  should  then  be  acidified 
with  nitric  acid,  and  treated  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
barium,  until  it  ceases  to  precipitate.  The  mixture  is  then 
warmed  and  filtered;  the  deposit  washed  in  the  filter  with 
water  containing  hydrochloric  acid,  and  dried.  In  medico- 
legal  cases  it  will  always  be  proper  to  confirm  this  reaction 


SULPHURIC    ACID. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  145 

by  reducing  the  suspected  sulphates,  in  the  manner  pointed 
out  on  page  143.  Other  parts  of  the  solution  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  confirmatory  tests. 

Although  by  this  process  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid 
can  be  certainly  established,  yet  it  does  not  follow  that  this 
acid  existed  in  the  free  state,  even  when  the  liquid  had  a 
strong  acid  reaction  ;  for  it  might  happen  that  some  neutral 
sulphate  was  present  along  with  any  common  acid,  like  acetic, 
citric,  etc. — vinegar,  for  instance — or  some  acid  sulphate,  as 
alum  ;  or,  it  might  be,  a  mixture  of  free  sulphuric  acid  and 
a  sulphate.  Now,  in  each  of  the  above  supposed  cases  the 
baryta  test  would  give  precisely  similar  results:  consequently 
the  baryta  test  alone  cannot  be  relied  on  for  detecting  free 
sulphuric  acid,  in  a  medico-legal  case. 

If,  on  evaporating  a  portion  of  the  clear  liquid  to  dryness, 
no  residue  is  left,  it  is  certain  that  the  acid  existed  in  the  free 
state ;  if,  however,  a  saline  residue  is  left,  then  there  is  no 
positive  evidence  of  the  presence  of  any  free  acid.  More- 
over, when  there  has  been  much  organic  matter  in  the 
original  liquid,  it  may  be  difficult  to  determine  whether  the 
residue  is  saline  or  organic.  In  this  case,  the  suspected 
organic  matter  must  be  destroyed  by  repeatedly  moistening 
the  residue  with  pure  strong  nitric  acid  and  evaporating  to 
dryness  by  a  moderate  heat  until  the  residue  has  a  yellow 
color,  after  which  the  heat  is  raised  until  the  organic  matter 
is  entirely  destroyed,  when,  if  a  salt  be  present,  it  will  remain 
as  a  white  mass.  If  this  residue,  on  examination,  proves  to 
be  a  sulphate,  we  are  still  unable  to  say  whether  any  sulphuric 
acid  was  present  in  the  free  state. 

In  a  case  like  the  above,  where  we  wish  to  determine 
whether  the  whole  of  the  acid  existed  as  a  sulphate,  the  fol- 
lowing process  is  recommended:  A  given  volume  of  the 
solution  is  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid  and 
precipitated  by  an  excess  of  chloride  of  barium,  the  precipi- 
tate washed,  dried,  and  weighed.  An  equal  volume  of  the 
original  solution  is  evaporated  to  complete  dryness,  in  order 
to  dissipate  any  free  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  dissolved  in 
acidulated  water,  filtered,  and  precipitated  as  before  ;  and  the 
dried  deposit  weighed.  If  no  free  sulphuric  acid  was  present, 


146  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  weight  of  each  of  the  barytic  precipitates  would,  of  course, 
be  equal ;  whereas,  in  the  other  case,  the  weight  of  the  former 
precipitate  ought  to  exceed  that  of  the  latter,  by  exactly  the 
amount  of  the  free  acid. 

MM.  Tardieu  and  Roussin  (Sur  1'Empois.,  p.  194),  after 
reviewing  the  various  methods  proposed  for  determining  free 
sulphuric  acid  when  associated  with  a  sulphate,  recommend 
the  following  process.  The  object  is  to  saturate  the  free  acid 
with  a  base,  the  sulphate  of  which  is  soluble  in  alcohol ;  this 
base  is  quinia  recently  prepared.  A  clear  solution  of  the  acid 
sulphate  of  quinia  is  first  precipitated  by  ammonia  in  slight 
excess;  the  hydrate  of  quinia  is  washed  with  distilled  water 
until  the  washings  yield  no  precipitate  with  chloride  of  ba- 
rium. In  the  mean  time,  the  suspected  organs,  vomited 
matters,  etc.,  which  have  been  digested  in  warm  distilled 
water  for  a  sufficiently  long  time,  are  filtered,  and  the  filtrate 
put  into  a  porcelain  capsule.  The  quinia  is  now  added  in 
slight  excess,  and  the  whole  evaporated  on  a  water-bath. 
The  semi-liquid  extract  which  remains  is  treated  several  times 
with  absolute  alcohol,  which  dissolves  out  the  sulphate  of 
quinia  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  free  acid,  and  leaves  the 
other  matters  (sulphates)  untouched.  The  alcoholic  solutions 
are  filtered,  and  evaporated  anew;  and  the  resulting  extract 
is  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  distilled  water,  and 
immediately  filtered.  If  the  amount  of  the  free  sulphuric 
acid  is  at  all  considerable,  the  sulphate  crystallizes  on  cool- 
ing, but  if  the  quantity  be  too  minute  to  form  crystals,  it  will 
still  be  easy  to  prove  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the 
baryta  test. 

It  may  happen  that,  in  consequence  of  the  alkaline  anti- 
dotes administered,  the  matters  vomited,  as  also  the  contents 
of  the  stomach,  have  a  neutral  reaction,  the  acid  existing  only 
in  the  form  of  a  sulphate.  In  such  a  case,  after  proceeding 
in  the  usual  way,  and  obtaining  a  clear  solution,  the  pre- 
cipitate obtained  by  chloride  of  barium  would,  of  course, 
indicate  only  the  quantity  of  the  combined  acid;  and  the 
chemical  analysis  alone  could  not  furnish  proof  of  poison- 
ing. Certainly,  if  the  quantity  of  combined  acid  thus  dis- 
covered was  small,  no  inference  whatever  could  be  drawn 


SULPHURIC    ACID. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  147 

from  the  experiment,  since  the  small  amount  of  sulphates 
normally  present  in  the  tissues  of  the  stomach  and  in  the 
food,  as  well  as  any  sulphate  accidentally  present,  would 
satisfactorily  account  for  a  small  deposit  of  sulphate  of 
baryta. 

M.  Tardieu  recommends,  in  such  a  contingency,  to  ascer- 
tain, as  well  as  possible,  the  nature  of  the  substances  given 
to  counteract  the  poison,  as  well  as  of  the  food  last  taken 
by  the  deceased.  With  a  knowledge  of  these  facts  in  his 
possession,  the  expert  prepares  a  mixture  of  meats  and 
articles  resembling  those  supposed  to  have  been  present  in 
the  stomach  ;  of  these,  he  uses  a  quantity  equal  in  weight  to 
that  of  the  vomited  matters,  or  of  the  stomach  and  its  con- 
tents :  these  two  masses  are  dried,  and  then  put  into  two 
separate  crucibles  of  the  same  size,  which  are  heated  to 
redness,  until  empyreumatic  fumes  cease  to  be  given  off, 
and  the  organic  substances  are  charred.  These  masses  of 
carbon  are  then  to  be  separately  powdered,  and  each  mixed 
with  a  fourth  of  its  weight  of  pure  powdered  nitrate  of 
potash,  free  from  any  sulphate.  Each  of  the  masses  is  then 
projected,  in  small  quantities,  into  a  red-hot  crucible,  and, 
after  deflagration  has  ceased,  the  cooled  residues  are  dis- 
solved in  distilled  water.  The  solutions  are  strongly  acid- 
ulated with  nitric  acid,  and  treated  with  an  excess  of  chlo- 
ride of  barium.  The  two  precipitates  are  washed,  filtered, 
dried,  burned,  and  weighed.  If  their  weight  is  about  equal, 
the  conclusion  would  be  against  the  idea  of  poisoning;  but 
if,  on  the  contrary,  that  of  the  precipitate  derived  from  the 
stomach  and  its  contents  is  decidedly  greater  than  that  of 
the  other,  then  the  presumption  is  very  strong  in  favor  of 
poisoning  (loc.  cit  p.  196). 

From  the  above  considerations  it  is  evident  that  it  will  not 
always  be  in  the  power  of  the  toxicologist  to  prove  a  case  of 
poisoning  by  sulphuric  acid  merely  by  the  chemical  analysis: 
he  must  seek  further  evidence  in  the  well-marked  symptoms, 
and  the  post-mortem  signs,  together  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  case. 

Detection  of  spots  on  clothing,  etc. — The  stains  produced  by 
sulphuric  acid  on  articles  of  clothing,  etc.,  are  easily  recog- 


148  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

nized.  The  texture  of  the  fabric  with  which  the  acid  comes 
in  contact  is  more  or  less  destroyed,  and  the  color  more  or 
less  changed :  on  black  cloth  the  stain  exhibits  a  red-brown 
tint;  some  colors  it  changes  to  yellow.  The  strong  acid 
chars  and  blackens  white  linen  and  cotton  fabrics.  Al- 
though the  dilute  acid  does  not  blacken  these  articles,  yet 
when  impregnated  with  it  they  become  charred  on  exposure 
to  a  moderate  heat.  According  to  Dr.  Taylor,  the  color  of 
black  leather  is  not  changed  by  sulphuric  acid.  Likewise, 
articles  dyed  with  either  indigo  or  Prussian  blue  do  not 
change  their  color  by  it  (nitric  acid  changes  the  color  of 
indigo  to  yellow).  Another  fact  in  connection  with  these 
stains  is,  that  they  remain  moist  for  a  long  time,  in  conser 
quence  of  the  affinity  of  sulphuric  acid  for  water. 

In  order  to  examine  the  spots  chemically,  one  or  two  of 
them  should  be  cut  out  and  soaked  for  awhile  in  hot  dis- 
tilled water.  A  brown-colored  solution  is  obtained,  which 
has  an  acid  reaction,  and  responds  to  the  usual  baryta  test. 
It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  an  acid  sulphate  will 
cause  a  similar  stain  upon  cloth.  The  salt  may  be  detected 
in  the  cloth  by  incineration.  In  all  such  examinations  of 
suspected  stains,  a  portion  of  the  unstained  fabric  should 
likewise  be  examined  for  the  presence  of  the  acid,  inasmuch 
as  many  articles  of  clothing  contain  slight  traces  of  sulphates, 
though  not  of  free  acid. 

Quantitative  analysis. — Sulphuric  acid  is  usually  estimated 
as  sulphate  of  baryta.  The  precipitated  sulphate,  after  re- 
peated washing  with  hot  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  on  a  filter,  is  dried,  ignited,  and  weighed,  allowance 
being  made  for  the  ash  of  the  filter.  One  hundred  parts  of 
the  sulphate  are  equal  to  42.02  parts  of  monohydrated  sul- 
phuric acid. 

The  following  results  of  different  cases  reported  in  the 
English  and  foreign  journals  are  taken  from  Guy's  Forensic 
Medicine,  p.  402  : 

Of  36  cases  (the  majority  females)— 26  were  fatal  (all  the 
children,  and  18  adults);  and  10  recovered  (all  adults). 

Of  31  cases — 20  were  suicidal;  3  homicidal  (all  young 
children) ;  and  8  accidental  (2  of  them  children). 


POISONING    BY    NITRIC    ACID.  149 

Among  adults,  both  in  accidental  and  suicidal  poisoning, 
there  was  1  recovery  to  2  deaths. 

Of  the  26  fatal  cases,  10  lasted  a  day  or  less;  6  more  than 
a  day,  and  less  than  a  week ;  3  less  than  two  weeks ;  1  from 
two  to  three  weeks;  1  over  three  weeks;  and  5  from  five  to 
forty-five  weeks. 

The  least  duration  in  5  children  was  three  and  a  half 
hours;  the  greatest,  three  days.  In  20  adults,  the  least  was 
three  and  a  half  hours;  the  greatest,  forty-five  weeks. 

The  recoveries  took  place  in  from  6  to  20  days. 

Perforation  of  the  stomach  occurred  in  8  cases  out  of  21, 
in  which  the  post-mortem  appearances  are  described. 


SECTION  II. 

POISONING    BY   NITRIC   ACID. 

Nitric  acid  (Aquafortis)  as  found  in  commerce  is  a  powerful 
corrosive  liquid,  having  a  yellow  or  orange  color,  and  a  density 
varying  from  1.35  to  1.45.  It  is  apt  to  be  contaminated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  and  iron.  In  its  chemically  pure 
state,  it  is  colorless.  Although  very  much  employed  in  the 
arts,  it  is  very  rarely  the  occasion  of  poisoning.  The  cases 
that  do  occur  are  usually  the  result  of  accident,  or  of  suicide. 
Orfila  relates  a  case  in  which  a  man  poured  a  spoonful  of  the 
acid  into  the  ear  of  a  drunken  wife,  while  asleep,  which  was 
ultimately  the  cause  of  her  death,  after  the  lapse  of  about 
seven  weeks.  This,  however,  cannot  be  regarded  properly 
as  a  case  of  poisoning. 

Symptoms. — These  are  almost  identical  with  those  produced 
by  sulphuric  acid.  There  is  the  same  immediate  burning 
pain  on  swallowing;  the  violent  pain  in  the  abdomen — 
perhaps  more  diffused  than  that  produced  by  sulphuric  acid; 
the  gaseous  eructations  also  more  copious;  similar  vomiting; 
often  violent  purging,  the  dejections  being  mixed  with  blood. 
Sometimes  there  is  obstinate  constipation,  with  suppression 
of  urine.  The  difficulty  of  respiration  is  often  extreme, 
rendering  the  operation  of  tracheotomy  necessary.  The 
lips  and  inside  of  the  mouth,  and  the  tongue,  present  at  first 


150  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

a  whitish  appearance,  which  soon  becomes  of  a  yellowish  hue, 
and  ultimately  brown.  When  drops  of  the  acid  have  fallen 
upon  the  cheeks,  neck,  or  other  parts  of  the  body,  a  per- 
manent yellow  stain  is  produced.  The  teeth  are  white,  but 
yellowish  at  their  junction  with  the  gums.  The  subsequent 
symptoms  are  those  of  collapse,  such  as  a  small,  frequent, 
and  feeble  pulse,  cold  skin,  and  great  prostration,  and  some- 
times a  sort  of  stupor.  The  intellect  is  usually  unaffected. 
As  in  the  case  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  poison  may  spend  its 
violence  on  the  respiratory  organs,  and  never  get  into  the 
stomach. 

The  points  that  distinguish  the  symptoms  of  this  poison 
from  those  of  sulphuric  acid  are  the  yellowish  color  of  the 
stains,  both  in  the  mouth  and  on  the  body;  the  rather  less 
violent  local  action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  the  occasional  purging  of  bloody  matters. 

Nitric  acid  gives  oft'  powerfully  irritating  fumes  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  which  occasionally  produce  fatal  effects 
when  breathed.  In  these  instances,  after  death,  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  trachea  and  bronchi  were  found  deeply  con- 
gested. Death  was  probably  occasioned  by  redema  of  the 
glottis.  The  vapors  from  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids — a  compound  much  used  in  the  arts — are  extremely 
dangerous  to  breathe.  In  these  cases,  the  violent  symptoms 
may  not  come  on  for  several  hours,  but,  after  appearing,  they 
progress  with  extreme  rapidity,  and  terminate  fatally  in  the 
course  of  ten  to  fifteen  hours. 

Fatal  dose. — In  the  fatal  cases  of  poisoning  by  this  acid, 
the  quantity  taken  has  not  been  mentioned.  Authorities, 
however,  unite  in  saying  that  two  drachms  of  the  concentrated 
acid  would  prove  fatal.  A  smaller  dose  would  destroy  life  in 
infants.  Yet  much  larger  doses  have  been  taken  with  ulti- 
mate recovery. 

Fatal  period. — Dr.  Taylor  records  a  case  where  death  oc- 
curred in  one  hour  and  three-quarters  after  swallowing  the 
poison  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Tartra  relates  an  instance 
which  did  not  prove  fatal  for  eight  months.  The  usual  fatal 
period  is  within  twenty-four  hours.  Out  of  fifty-six  cases  of 
poisoning  by  nitric  acid  collected  by  Tartra,  twenty-one  com- 


NITRIC   ACID. — POST-MORTEM    APPEARANCES.  151 

pletely  recovered,  and  eight  partially — making  the  mortality 
about  one-half. 

Treatment.  —  This  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  recom- 
mended for  sulphuric  acid  (ante,  p.  140). 

Post-mortem  appearances. — In  acute  poisoning  by  nitric  acid, 
the  inside  of  the  lips,  mouth,  and  throat,  together  with  the 
tongue,  will  usually  present  a  yellow  hue;  sometimes  it  is 
grayish  white,  and  more  frequently  brownish  ;  sometimes 
large  patches  of  the  membrane  are  destroyed.  The  lining 
membrane  of  the  O3sophagus  is  also  of  a  yellowish  color;  it 
is  generally  thickened  and  softened,  and  sometimes  removed 
in  longitudinal  streaks.  A  similar  appearance  will  be  no- 
ticed about  the  glottis  and  the  interior  of  the  larynx  and 
trachea,  if  the  acid  has  gained  access  to  these  organs.  As 
in  the  case  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  may  happen  that  none  of  the 
poison  has  passed  into  the  stomach,  but  the  whole  force  has 
been  spent  upon  the  respiratory  organs.  The  examiner 
should  not  fail  to  notice  particularly  any  spots  or  stains 
upon  the  face,  neck,  and  other  exposed  parts  of  the  body,  as 
well  as  upon  the  dress.  These  spots,  if  due  to  nitric  acid,  will 
exhibit  a  decided  yellow  color.  Those  011  the  clothes,  after 
a  time,  become  brownish,  and,  unlike  the  spots  made  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  they  become  dry,  rotting  the  texture.  More- 
over, as  the  acid  is  volatile,  if  the  examination  of  the  stains 
be  deferred  for  any  length  of  time,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
identify  them.  A  few  weeks  suffice  to  remove  all  chemical 
traces  of  this  acid,  differing  in  this  respect  vastly  from  sul- 
phuric acid,  the  stains  of  which,  on  articles  of  clothing, 
remain  unaltered  and  distinguishable  for  many  years. 

The  stomach  is  distended,  often  exhibiting  on  its  outer 
surfaces  patches  of  green  color,  due  to  the  action  of  the  acid 
on  the  bile.  Too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  upon  this  ap- 
pearance, since  in  certain  diseased  states  of  the  body  the  bile 
itself  undergoes  a  change  which  imparts  to  it  a  very  similar 
green  color.  The  stomach  is  sometimes  adherent  to  the 
other  viscera,  and  cases  are  reported  in  which  this  organ  was 
completely  destroyed  by  the  corrosive  action  of  the  acid,  a 
cavity  being  left  among  the  surrounding  viscera,  which  con- 
tained coagulated  blood.  The  contents  are  usually  colored 


152  MANUAL    OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

yellow.  The  raucous  membrane  is  softened,  thickened,  de- 
tached in  patches,  deeply  congested, — the  vessels  being  in- 
jected with  dark  coagulated  blood.  Perforation  rarely  occurs, 
but  when  it  does,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  pass  into  the 
peritoneal  cavity,  imparting  a  yellowish  tint  to  the  adjacent 
viscera,  and  also  producing  intense  peritoneal  inflammation. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  small  intestines  will  be  very 
likely  to  exhibit  appearances  similar  to  those  seen  in  the 
stomach ;  but  these  may  at  times  altogether  escape  cor- 
rosion. 

The  large  intestines  are  not  apt  to  be  affected  ;  and,  unless 
in  the  exceptional  cases  where  purging  has  existed  before 
death,  they  may  contain  hardened  faeces.  The  other  ab- 
dominal organs  are  usually  inflamed,  even  when  the  stomach 
has  not  been  perforated.  The  lungs  and  bronchi  are  deeply 
congested  in  those  cases  where  the  force  of  the  poison  has 
been  spent  upon  the  larynx  and  trachea. 

In  cases  of  death  from  chronic  poisoning,  the  body  is 
greatly  emaciated,  the  stomach  and  bowels  more  or  less  con- 
tracted and  thickened;  in  one  instance  reported,  where  the 
patient  lived  three  months,  the  pylorus  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  duodenum  were  contracted  to  the  diameter  of  one  or 
two  lines;  the  mucous  membrane  was  softened  and  red  in 
patches,  and  there  were  several  cicatrices  of  ulcers.  (Med.- 
Chir.  Rev.,  vol.  xxviii.  p.  553.) 

Chemical  analysis. — The  concentrated  acid  may  be  recog- 
nized, (1)  by  its  giving  out  white  fumes  when  exposed  to  the 
air.  (2)  By  its  staining  organic  substances  yellow  or  brown, 
— the  color  being  heightened  by  touching  with  a  drop  of 
caustic  alkaline  solution.  (3)  By  its  powerful  action  on  metal- 
lic copper,  evolving  copious  orange-colored  pungent  fumes, 
and  leaving  a  blue  solution  (nitrate  of  copper).  Other  metals 
are  acted  on  with  equal  energy,  as  mercury,  zinc,  tin,  etc.  This 
action  of  nitric  acid,  in  the  cold,  upon  metals,  with  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  red  fumes,  is  quite  characteristic.  If  the  acid  be 
diluted,  it  may  require  to  be  boiled  before  its  action  on  cop- 
per will  be  visible.  (4)  It  does  not  dissolve  gold-leaf,  even 
on  boiling;  but  if  hydrochloric  acid  be  added,  the  gold  is 
immediately  dissolved. 


POISONING    BY    NITRIC   ACID. — TESTS.  153 

The  dilute  acid. — On  account  of  the  free  solubility  of  the 
nitrates,  no  precipitate  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  reagents, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  other  two  mineral  acids;  nevertheless, 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  identifying  it.  (1)  Unless  very  much 
diluted,  when  boiled  on  copper  clippings,  it  yields  the  char- 
acteristic red  fumes,  and  leaves  behind  a  blue  solution.  (2) 
When  neutralized  by  carbonate  of  potash,  and  a  piece  of 
filtering-paper  is  dipped  into  the  resulting  solution  (nitrate 
of  potassa)  and  dried,  it  burns  like  touch-paper  when  applied 
to  a  flame.  (3)  If  this  solution  be  evaporated,  it  will  yield 
characteristic  lengthened  striated  prisms  of  nitrate  of  potassa. 
If  neutralized  with  soda,  the  crystals  present  the  well-known 
rhombic  form  of  the  nitrate  of  soda.  A  single  drop  of  the 
solution  evaporated  on  a  glass  slide  will  exhibit,  under  the 
microscope,  the  well-marked  characters  of  each  of  these 
salts.  (4)  A  fragment  of  these  crystals  is  put  into  a  very 
small  test-tube  along  with  a  grain  or  two  of  copper  filings, 
then  moistened  with  water,  and  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid  added  :  either  with  or  without  heating,  the  evolution  of 
the  orange  vapors  and  the  production  of  a  blue  liquid  will 
prove  the  presence  of  nitric  acid.  (5)  Proceed  as  in  4, 
substituting  for  copper  a  small  crystal  of  morphia:  it  will 
yield  an  orange  color  and  a  yellowish  liquid;  the  color  be- 
comes fainter  by  boiling.  (6)  As  in  4,  substituting  for  copper 
a  fragment  of  brucia:  a  blood-red  color  is  the  result,  which 
is  removed  by  the  application  of  chloride  of  tin.  (7)  As  in 
4,  using  a  crystal  of  narcotina  in  place  of  copper:  a  reddish- 
brown  color  is  produced,  changing  by  gentle  heat  to  a  blood- 
red.  (8)  Mr.  Horsley  has  proposed  a  test,  the  delicacy  of 
which  is  confirmed  by  Prof.  Wormley, — pyrogallic  acid;  it  is 
employed  as  follows:  a  small  quantity  of  water  acidulated 
with  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  is  put  into  a  small  test- 
tube;  add  a  fragment  of  pyrogallic  acid;  after  which  a 
little  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  allowed  to  flow  down 
the  inside  of  the  tube  so  as  to  subside  to  the  bottom ;  add  a 
few  crystals  of  common  salt,  and,  when  effervescence  ceases, 
drop  in  a  fragment  of  the  suspected  nitrate;  the  acid  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube  very  soon  assumes  an  intense  purple  hue, 
which  may  extend  to  the  rest  of  the  liquid.  (9)  The  iron  test. 


154  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

— Add  to  a  few  drops  of  the  dilute  'acid,  or  to  a  fragment  of 
a  nitrate,  in  a  small  test-tube,  a  large  excess  of  pure  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid;  heat  the  mixture  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  cool  it  by  immersing  the  tube  in  cold  water  (it  is 
essential  that  the  mixture  should  be  cold) ;  then  allow  a  few 
drops  of  the  fresh  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron  to  flow 
down  the  inside  of  the  tube;  at  the  line  of  junction  of  the 
two  liquids  there  will  be  formed  a  beautiful  purple,  or 
brownish-purple,  zone, — the  intensity  of  the  color  depending 
on  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid  present.  This  color  will  ex- 
tend throughout  the  liquid,  on  gently  stirring  it,  so  as  not 
to  evolve  heat.  On  subsequently  heating  the  tube,  the  color 
disappears,  with  the  evolution  of  the  characteristic  red  fumes. 
This  is  a  very  delicate  and  satisfactory  test,  if  properly  made. 
Care  should  always  be  taken  to  insure  the  purity  of  the 
sulphuric  acid,  as  even  the  purest  samples  are  apt  to  con- 
tain traces  of  nitric  or  nitrous  acid ;  in  which  case  it  would 
give  the  above  reaction  with  the  iron  solution  without  the 
addition  of  any  nitric  acid.  (10)  The  indigo  test. — When  a 
weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo  (indigo  dissolved  in 
sulphuric  acid)  is  heated  in  contact  with  nitric  acid  (or  a 
nitrate  and  sulphuric  acid),  the  color  disappears.  (11)  The 
gold  test. — Add  to  the  suspected  solution,  concentrated,  or  to 
a  fragment  of  the  crystal,  a  few  drops  of  strong  hydrochloric 
acid  along  with  a  slip  of  gold-leaf,  and  apply  heat;  the  gold 
will  be  dissolved  as  a  chloride.  The  presence  of  gold  may 
be  recognized,  if  not  in  too  minute  quantity,  by  protochlo- 
ride  of  tin,  which  produces  a  purple  precipitate,  or  at  least 
imparts  a  purple  color  to  the  liquid.  As  hydrochloric  acid 
frequently  contains  chlorine,  it  should  first  be  tested  alone 
with  gold-leaf,  before  adding  it  to  the  suspected  nitrate. 

A  similar  reaction  is  also  given  by  chlorates,  hypochlorites, 
chromates,  iodates,  and  bromates;  also  by  the  sesquisalts  of 
iron  (II.  Wurtz,  Chem.  Gaz.,  xvii.  p.  32). 

Several  other  tests  have  been  proposed ;  but,  as  they  are  of 
inferior  value  to  those  detailed  above,  they  need  no  further 
notice. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures,  contents  of  stomach,  etc. — If  the 
mixture  is  viscid,  or  contains  solid  matters,  it  should  be 


NITRIC   ACID. — DETECTION   IN   ORGANIC    MIXTURES.        155 

gently  boiled  in  distilled  water  for  about  twenty  minutes, 
allowed  to  cool,  and  then  filtered;  the  matters  on  the  filter 
thoroughly  washed ;  and  the  liquid  concentrated  by  evapor- 
ation. If  found  to  be  acid  on  testing  it  with  litmus-paper, 
it  should  be  neutralized  with  bicarbonate  of  potassa,  and 
allowed  to  crystallize  by  evaporation.  If  the  resulting  crys- 
tals are  much  discolored  by  the  organic  matters,  the  latter 
may  be  removed  to  a  great  extent  by  absolute  alcohol,  which 
has  no  material  effect  on  the  crystals.  These  may  now  be 
dissolved  in  a  very  small  quantity  of  pure  water,  and  re-crys- 
tallized by  evaporation.  A  few  drops  of  the  solution  allowed 
to  dry  upon  a  glass  slide  and  examined  with  the  microscope 
will  exhibit  the  characteristic  six-sided  striated  crystals  of 
nitrate  of  potassa.  The  different  tests  already  mentioned 
may  then  be  successively  applied. 

If  the  original  solution  contains  enough  of  the  acid,  the 
copper  and  gold  tests  may  be  applied  directly. 

It  may  happen,  however,  that  in  consequence  of  the  anti- 
dotes administered — lime  or  magnesia,  or  one  of  the  alkaline 
carbonates — the  matters  examined  are  no  longer  acid,  but 
neutral;  the  free  acid  has  combined  with  a  base,  and  now 
exists  as  a  nitrate.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  solution, 
after  boiling,  if  necessary,  and  filtration,  should  be  treated 
with  bicarbonate  of  potassa  (or  soda),  and  heated  for  a  short 
time,  to  allow  the  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime  or  magnesia  to 
subside.  It  is  then  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  containing  the 
nitrate  of  potassa  is  allowed  to  crystallize  by  evaporation, 
and  the  crystals  examined,  as  before  mentioned.  If  the  anti- 
dote administered  was  either  carbonate  of  potassa  or  soda,  it 
will  only  be  necessary  to  evaporate  the  clear  filtered  liquid 
in  order  to  procure  crystals  of  the  nitrates  of  these  alkaloids, 
which  can  be  tested  as  above. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  although  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  or  rather  organic  matters,  may  have  an  acid  reac- 
tion, and  exhibit  the  evidences  of  the  presence  of  nitric  acid, 
yet  this  acid  may  not  exist  in  the  free  state,  as  e.g.  when 
some  nitrate  happens  to  be  present  along  with  an  ordinary 
acid.  In  such  a  case,  the  method  recommended  for  sulphuric 
acid  (ante,  p.  145)  is  to  be  pursued.  If  the  acid  exists  in  the 


156  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

free  state  only,  on  evaporating  a  few  drops  of  the  original  fil- 
tered solution,  no  saline  residue  should  be  left. 

Orfila  considers  the  sulphate  of  narcotina  arid  the  protosul- 
phate  of  iron  (iron  test)  as  two  of  the  most  delicate  tests  for 
nitric  acid.  His  mode  of  employing  them  is  as  follows.  A 
minute  fragment  of  the  suspected  nitrate  is  mixed  with 
copper  filings  (or  a  small  piece  of  copper-foil)  and  put  into  a 
very  small  test-tube  with  a  drop  or  two  of  water  and  five  or 
six  drops  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric  acid :  a  small  glass 
tube  bent  at  right  angles  attached  to  the  test-tube  serves  to 
conduct  the  disengaged  gas  into  another  small  test-tube  con- 
taining a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  narcotina. 
On  heating  the  first  tube,  the  deutoxide  of  nitrogen  will  pass 
over  into  the  second  one,  and  immediately  produce  a  blood- 
red  color.  If  the  second  test-tube  contains  a  solution  of  the 
protosulphate  of  iron,  the  disengaged  gas  will  immediately 
cause  it  to  assume  a  dark-brown  or  coffee  color;  if  now  five 
or  six  times  its  volume  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  be  added,  it 
will  acquire  a  violet  or  purple  hue.  (Toxicologie,  1852,  i. 
p.  178.) 

Although  these  two  tests  are  so  very  delicate,  yet  they 
cannot  be  regarded  as  always  indicating  the  presence  of 
nitric  acid,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  bodies.  Orfila  him- 
self tells  us  (loc.  ciL,  p.  181)  that  healthy  urine  will  redden 
uarcotina,  and  produce  a  brownish  color  with  the  iron,  which 
subsequently  turns  violet  on  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Urea  acts  in  the  same  manner;  and  the  serum  of  the  blood 
drawn  from  a  patient  affected  with  pleurisy,  although  not 
acting  on  the  narcotina,  produced  upon  the  iron-salt  precisely 
the  same  effect  as  that  caused  by  nitric  acid. 

Orfila  further  ascertained  that  if  the  nitrate  is  present  in 
very  small  quantity,  along  with  a  large  excess  of  alkaline 
chlorides,  or  of  organic  matters,  the  copper  and  sulphuric 
acid  test  fails  to  produce  a  gas  which  will  give  the  charac- 
teristic reaction  with  protosulphate  of  iron  (loc.  cit.,p.  182). 

Absorption  and  elimination. — According  to  Orfila,  nitric  acid 
is  absorbed  into  the  general  circulation,  and  eliminated  by 
the  urine.  He  proved  its  presence  in  this  secretion,  in 
animals  poisoned  by  the  acid,  by  distilling  the  urine  with 


NITRIC  ACID. — SUSPECTED  STAINS.  157 

sulphuric  acid,  and  neutralizing  the  distillate  with  potassa: 
on  evaporation,  the  characteristic  crystals  of  nitrate  of  potash 
were  obtained.  This  result  does  not  uniformly  follow,  but 
occurs  only  during  certain  stages  of  the  poisoning. 

In  examining  a  body  poisoned  by  nitric  acid  after  several 
months'  interment,  the  poison  will,  in  all  probability,  be 
found  to  have  entirely  disappeared,  having  been  converted 
into  nitrate  of  ammonia.  But  as  this  salt  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  soil,  its  presence  in  the  body  might  be  ascribed  to  per- 
colation from  the  ground  in  which  it  was  buried.  In  such  a 
case,  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  soil  should  be  analyzed. 
If  putrefaction  be  not  too  far  advanced,  it  may  be  possible  to 
recognize  some  of  the  marked  post-mortem  changes  in  the 
alimentary  canal. 

Examination  of  suspected  stains. — These  should  be  cut  out, 
and  soaked  for  a  time  in  warm  distilled  water.  The  presence 
of  a  free  acid  having  been  tested  by  litmus-paper,  the  liquid 
should  be  neutralized  with  bicarbonate  of  potassa,  and  fil- 
tered, and  the  resulting  crystals  examined  by  the  micro- 
scope and  subjected  to  the  appropriate  tests  (see  ante,  p.  153): 
the  dried  filter  burns  like  touch-paper.  As  nitric  acid  is 
volatile,  it  is  soon  dissipated,  by  exposure,  from  the  substances 
on  which  it  has  fallen.  After  a  certain  length  of  time,  the 
spots  on  woolen  or  cotton  garments  turn  brownish,  become 
dry  and  rotten,  and  lose  every  trace  of  the  acid.  Sir  R. 
Christison  was  able  to  detect  its  presence  in  stains  seven 
weeks  old;  and  Dr.  Guy  quotes  an  instance  in  which  it  was 
discovered,  under  similar  circumstances,  after  an  interval  of 
some  mouths  (Wormley). 

To  distinguish  stains  of  nitric  acid  from  those  caused  by 
iodine  or  bile,  test  with  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  potassa: 
the  nitric  acid  stain  assumes  a  bright  orange  tint,  while  the 
iodine  (or  bromine)  stain  immediately  disappears;  and  the 
bile  stain  undergoes  no  change. 


11 


158  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

SECTION   III. 

HYDROCHLORIC   ACID    (MURIATIC  ACID). 

This  acid,  sometimes  known  in  commerce  by  the  name  of 
spirit  of  salt,  occurs  usually  as  a  light-yellow  liquid,  powerfully 
acid,  fuming  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  emits  dense  white 
vapors  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  vapor  of  ammo- 
nia. Its  sp.  gr.  is  usually  about  1.15.  When  chemically  pure, 
it  is  colorless;  its  ordinary  yellow  color  is  due  to  chloride 
of  iron,  or  chlorine,  or  both.  The  commercial  acid,  also, 
frequently  contains  arsenic,  nitric  acid,  common  salt,  and 
occasionally  antimony. 

Instances  of  poisoning  by  this  acid  are  comparatively  rare ; 
especially  those  of  a  homicidal  character. 

Symptoms. — These  are,  in  the  main,  similar  to  those  already 
described  as  resulting  from  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids. 
Among  these  symptoms,  Tardieu  mentions  the  grayish 
appearance  of  the  stains  around  the  mouth  and  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  buccal  cavity,  together  with  the  formation  of 
false  membrane  upon  the  mucous  surfaces  attacked  by  the 
acid,  as  characteristic  of  hydrochloric  acid  (loc.  cit.,  p.  235). 

Fatal  dose.  —  The  smallest  quantity  recorded  as  having 
proved  fatal  is  half  an  ounce.  This  was  swallowed  by  a 
woman  aged  sixty-three  years,  with  suicidal  intent,  and 
caused  death  in  eighteen  hours  (Wharton  and  Stille,  Med. 
Jurisp.,  vol.  ii.  p.  322).  As  in  the  case  of  the  other  mineral 
acids,  recoveries  have  occurred  after  much  larger  doses  have 
been  swallowed,  after  the  use  of  proper  remedies.  The 
period  at  which  death  takes  place  in  acute  cases  varies  from 
live  hours  and  a  half  (the  shortest  period)  to  eight  days;  in  the 
latter  case,  two  ounces  of  the  stronsr  acid  had  been  swallowed. 

o 

In  more  chronic  cases,  life  was  prolonged  for  eight  weeks. 

The  treatment  is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  case  of  the 
other  mineral  acids  (ante,  p.  140). 

Post-mortem  appearances. — These,  on  the  whole,  closely  re- 
semble the  morbid  lesions  produced  by  sulphuric  acid.  The 
throat,  mouth,  aud  gullet  have  been  found  highly  inflamed, 
their  lining  membrane  detached  in  masses,  or  sloughing 


HYDROCHLORIC   ACID. — POST-MORTEM   SIGNS.  159 

away.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  is  extensively  cor- 
roded, softened  and  thickened.  The  contents  are  sometimes 
of  a  yellowish,  and  sometimes  of  a  greenish,  color.  On  re- 
moving these,  the  lining  membrane  has  been  found  blackened 
in  ridges,  as  if  charred,  and  the  intervening  furrows  of  a 
bright-red  color.  This  appearance  may  extend  through  the 
duodenum.  Perforation  of  the  stomach  is  comparatively 
rare  ;  though  in  a  case  reported  by  Dr.  Galtier,  this  organ 
was  entirely  disorganized  and  softened ;  it  presented  poste- 
riorly several  perforations  of  different  diameters,  with  rounded, 
thickened,  and  inflamed  margins,  adhering  to  the  adjoining 
viscera  by  albuminous  deposits.  The  pyloric  orifice  was 
thickened,  as  well  as  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small 
intestines.  The  gullet  was  thickened  throughout,  and  its 
mucous  membrane  was  in  a  state  of  suppuration.  In  this 
case  the  person  survived  eight  weeks  after  taking  the  poison. 
In  the  more  protracted  cases  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to 
softening  and  thickening  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  gullet, 
stomach,  and  small  intestines,  with  partial  removal  of  this 
membrane  in  shreds  or  patches.  In  those  cases  where  the 
force  of  the  poison  has  spent  itself  upon  the  respiratory 
organs — the  glottis,  larynx,  and  trachea — these  will  be  found 
deeply  injected,  often  corroded,  with  more  or  less  detach- 
ment of  the  lining  membrane,  together  with  engorgement  of 
the  lungs  and  pleura.  In  cases  of  this  nature  the  stomach 
may  possibly  entirely  escape  the  corrosive  action  of  the 
poison. 

Prof.  Guy  (Forensic  Medicine,  p.  408)  has  given  some 
good  illustrations  of  the  morbid  changes  in  the  gullet  and 
stomach  resulting  from  the  corrosive  action  of  muriatic 
acid.  The  shriveled,  worm-eaten  appearance  of  the  former, 
together  with  the  patches  denuded  of  epithelium,  as  also  the 
black  grumotis  condition  of  the  inner  coats  of  the  stomach, 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  condition  observed  in 
poisoning  from  sulphuric  acid.  He  also  very  properly  cau- 
tions against  mistaking  for  the  above  condition  that  state  of 
the  mucous  membrane  resulting  from  the  effects  of  the  acid 
secretions  of  the  stomach,  before  and  after  death,  more  espe- 
cially in  chronic  diseases,  as  phthisis;  in  which  there  may 


160  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

be  abrasion  of  the  epithelium,  together  with  a  similar  black 
granular  deposit,  alternating  with  red  injected  streaks. 

Chemical  analysis. — 1.  The  strong  acid. — This  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  acids,  (a)  by  its  yellow  color ;  (6)  by  its  giving 
off  dense  white  fumes  when  in  contact  with  ammonia;  (c)  by 
its  negative  action  on  metallic  copper  or  mercury,  either  cold 
or  boiling ;  (d)  by  its  giving  off  chlorine  gas  when  heated  with 
peroxide  of  manganese :  this  last  test  is  characteristic.  It 
produces  a  greenish  stain  on  black  cloth. 

2.  In  the  diluted  state. — The  failure  to  cause  a  precipitate 
with  chloride  of  barium  would  prove  the  absence  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  characteristic  test  is  nitrate  of  silver  in  solu- 
tion: this  occasions,  even  in  the  very  dilute  acid,  a  copious, 
curdy,  white  precipitate,  which  soon  darkens  on  exposure 
to  the  light.  This  precipitate  is  insoluble  in  boiling  nitric 
acid,  and  in  caustic  potassa,  but  is  very  soluble  in  ammonia. 
When  it  is  dried  and  heated,  it  fuses  into  a  yellow  liquid, 
which,  on  cooling,  becomes  a  soft,  horny  mass.  As  any 
soluble  chloride,  e.g.  common  salt,  will  give  precisely  the 
same  reaction  with  nitrate  of  silver,  a  drop  or  two  of  the 
original  acid  liquid  should  be  carefully  evaporated,  when,  if 
no  residue  is  left,  the  acid  will  have  been  in  the  free  state. 
Nitrate  of  silver  also  produces,  in  neutral  solutions,  precipi- 
tates with  other  acids  or  elements ;  but  all  these  precipitates, 
with  the  exception  of  that  from  hydrocyanic  acid,  are  freely 
soluble  in  nitric  acid.  The  cyanide  of  silver  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  chloride  by  fusion ;  it  yields  an  inflam- 
mable gas,  which  burns  with  a  rose-colored  flame.  (See  post, 
HYDROCYANIC  ACID.) 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — As  most  organic  mixtures  con- 
tain hydrochloric  acid,  free  or  combined,  these  will  generally 
yield  a  whitish  precipitate  with  nitrate  of  silver.  In  the  con- 
tents of  a  stomach  we  may  expect  always  to  find  more  or  less 
of  this  acid,  as  it  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  gastric  juice. 
In  some  cases  of  disordered  digestion,  its  quantity  is  greatly 
augmented.  Dr.  Prout  once  found  between  four  and  live 
grains  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid  in  sixteen  ounces  of  the  fluid 
of  water-brash  (Philos.  Trans.,  1824,  p.  49).  From  this  it  fol- 
lows that  great  caution  must  be  observed  as  regards  the  in- 


HYDROCHLORIC    ACID. — ANALYSIS.  161 

ferenco  of  poisoning  by  hydrochloric  acid,  from  the  chemical 
analysis  exclusively.  Most  certainly,  if  the  symptoms  and 
morbid  lesions  do  not  fully  warrant  the  diagnosis,  it  would 
be  very  unsafe  to  found  it  upon  the  chemical  results,  for  the 
reasons  given  above. 

As  this  acid  adheres  with  great  tenacity  to  organic  matters, 
it  will  be  found  almost  impossible  to  separate  it  from  the 
latter,  especially  if  it  be  present  in  very  small  quantity,  by 
the  usual  process  of  boiling,  filtering,  and  distilling.  Ac- 
cording to  Christison,  it  will  seldom  be  found  in  the  dis- 
tillate. Under  such  circumstances,  Orfila  recommended  to 
treat  the  residue  in  the  retort  with  a  strong  solution  of  tannin, 
filter,  and  distill  the  filtrate,  as  before,  to  near  dryness,  avoid- 
ing a  higher  temperature  than  240°  F.  But  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  this  process  will  indicate  hydrochloric  acid 
in  a  mixture  that  contains  merely  a  chloride  (as  common 
salt)  and  sulphuric  acid.  This  fallacy  can,  however,  be  avoided 
by  proving  the  absence  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the  baryta  test. 

Practically,  the  following  process,  recommended  by  Tar- 
dieu  (loc.  cit.,  p.  238),  is  found  to  answer  best,  in  medico-legal 
cases,  where  it  is  important  to  determine  whether  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  present  in  the  free  state  in  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  or  in  other  complex  organic  mixtures.  Any  solid 
matters  are  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  the  mass  diluted,  if 
necessary,  with  distilled  water,  heated  to  near  the  boiling- 
point  for  about  half  an  hour,  cooled,  and  filtered.  It  is  then 
divided  into  two  equal  portions,  one  of  which  is  saturated 
with  an  excess  of  pure  carbonate  of  soda,  and  evaporated  to 
dryness  over  a  water-bath.  The  other  portion  is  evaporated 
in  the  same  manner,  but  without  the  addition  of  the  carbo- 
nate of  soda.  The  two  residues  are  then  completely  calcined 
in  two  separate  porcelain  capsules,  treated  with  a  little  dis- 
tilled water,  and  filtered.  Each  solution  is  then  acidulated 
with  pure  nitric  acid,  and  precipitated  with  an  excess  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  The  two  precipitates  are  separately  received 
on  small  filters,  thoroughly  washed,  dried,  incinerated  along 
with  their  filters,  and  finally  weighed.  If  the  weight  of 
the  chloride  of  silver  is  the  same  in  both  cases,  this  will  be 
positive  proof  that  there  was  no  free  hydrochloric  acid  present 


162  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

in  the  original  material ;  but  if  the  portion  saturated  with 
the  carhonate  of  soda  yields  a  greater  quantity  of  chloride  of 
silver  than  the  other  portion,  this  excess  of  chloride  must 
manifestly  be  ascribed  to  free  hydrochloric  acid. 

Examination  of  suspected  stains. — These  should  be  treated 
in  the  manner  pointed  out  for  the  other  two  mineral  acids. 
Litmus-paper  will  indicate  the  presence  of  a  free  acid  in  the 
solution  ;  and  the  silver  test  will  indicate  the  presence  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  but  not  its  presence  in  the  free  state,  ex- 
clusively. Whether  the  reaction  is  due  to  a  Chloride  may  be 
ascertained  in  the  manner  already  pointed  out.  As  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  volatile,  the  examination  of  the  stain  should  be 
made  as  early  as  possible ;  otherwise  all  traces  may  be  lost. 

Quantitative  analysis. — Hydrochloric  acid  is  determined 
quantitatively  by  first  precipitating  it  as  a  chloride  by  means 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  slightly  heating  until  the  whole  of  the 
chloride  is  deposited ;  the  precipitate  is  then  collected  on  a 
small  weighed  filter,  thoroughly  washed,  dried,  and  weighed. 
Every  100  grains  of  the  dried  chloride  correspond  to  25.43 
parts  of  anhydrous  hydrochloric  acid,  or  about  81  parts  of 
ordinary  liquid  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1.15. 


SECTION  IV. 

POISONING   BY   OXALIC    ACID,   AND    BINOXALATE    OF    POTASSA. 

Oxalic  acid,  although  strictly  belonging  to  the  organic 
acids,  is  conveniently  discussed  under  the  present  head,  inas- 
much as  some  of  its  effects  upon  the  system  so  thoroughly 
resemble  those  occasioned  by  the  corrosive  (mineral)  acids. 

This  acid  exists,  in  combination  with  lime  and  potash,  in 
several  vegetables,  as  the  rhubarb,  or  pie-plant,  the  wood 
sorrel  ( Oxalis  acetosella),  and  several  others.  It  is  a  compound 
of  carbon  and  oxygen  with  the  elements  of  water.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  acid  of  sugar,  because  it  is  procured  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  sugar  or  starch.  It  is  a  solid, 

O  7 

white,  crystalline  substance,  bearing  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  Epsom  salt  (sulphate  of  magnesia),  and  white 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc).  It  has  an  intensely  sour  taste,  by 


OXALIC   ACID. — SYMPTOMS.  163 

which  it  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  these  substances. 
It  is  considerably  employed  in  the  arts,  and  has  frequently 
been  the  cause  of  accidental  death,  from  having  been  mis- 
taken for  Epsom  salt.  It  has  also  been  frequently  taken  for 
suicidal  purposes,  especially  in  England ;  and  occasionally  it 
has  been  administered  hornicidally.  Its  intensely  sour  taste 
would  usually  lead  to  its  immediate  detection.  A  case  is  re- 
ported in  which  it  was  administered  with  criminal  intent  in 
buttermilk,  with  fatal  result. 

Symptoms. — These  depend  very  much  upon  the  size  of 
the  dose,  and  the  degree  of  concentration.  When  swallowed 
in  a  large  dose — half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce — dissolved  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  the  effects  are  immediate  and  vio- 
lent. An  intensely  sour  taste  is  speedily  followed  by  a 
burning  sensation  in  the  gullet,  extending  to  the  stomach, 
increased  by  pressure;  there  is  also  a  feeling  of  constriction 
of  the  throat;  vomiting  soon  follows,  sometimes  of  bloody 
matters,  but  generally  of  a  greenish-brown  or  black  gru- 
mous  matter;  and  if  the  patient  survives  some  hours,  there 
is  purging  of  a  similar  character.  The  remaining  symptoms 
are  those  of  collapse, — extreme  debility,  pale  and  anxious 
countenance,  cold  and  clammy  skin,  small  and  frequent 
pulse,  and  hurried  respiration.  There  are  also  soreness  of 
the  mouth,  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the  tongue,  painful 
deglutition,  intense  thirst,  restlessness,  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing, and  distressing  cough.  Besides  the  above  symptoms, 
there  are  frequently  cramps  and  numbness  of  the  legs  and 
arms,  acute  pain  in  the  back  and  head,  delirium,  and  con- 
vulsions— symptoms  which  indicate  the  very  decided  action 
of  the  poison  upon  the  nervous  system.  As  in  the  case  of 
other  violent  poisons,  the  above-mentioned  symptoms  are 
subject  to  many  exceptions  and  anomalies.  Thus,  cases  are 
reported  in  which  pain  and  vomiting  have  both  been  absent; 
or  vomiting  has  not  occurred  until  emetics  were  adminis- 
tered. In  a  singular  case  referred  to  by  Sir  R.  Christison 
(On  Poisons,  p.  223),  a  peculiar  spotted  eruption  appeared 
upon  the  skin,  and  leeches  applied  to  the  epigastrium  soon 
fell  off  dead,  showing  evidently  that  the  poison  had  beeu 
absorbed  into  the  circulation. 


164  MANUAL   OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

The  general  symptoms  of  oxalic  acid  poisoning  are  un- 
doubtedly those  of  the  irritants;  but  it  may  be  so  diluted  as 
to  lose  all  its  irritant  and  corrosive  properties,  and  yet  prove 
fatal,  from  its  remote  specific  effects  upon  the  heart  and  the 
nerve-centres.  The  latter  impression  is  evidenced  in  the 
acute  pains  in  the  back,  extending  down  the  limbs,  the  tetanic 
spasms,  the  numbness  and  tingling  in  the  limbs,  approaching 
to  paralysis,  and  also  the  occasional  narcotic  effect  observed. 
In  this  respect  it  differs  from  the  mineral  acids. 

Fatal  dose. — The  smallest  fatal  quantity  recorded  is  in  the 
case  of  a  boy  aged  sixteen  years,  who  died  in  nine  hours  after 
eating  about  one  drachm  of  the  solid  crystals.  (Case  reported  by 
Dr.  Barker,  Lancet,  Dec.  1, 1855  ;  and  quoted  by  Dr.  Taylor.) 
The  latter  authority  also  reports  a  case  in  which  a  woman 
aged  twenty-eight  years  died  in  one  hour  after  swallowing 
three  drachms  of  the  crystallized  acid.  Serious,  though  not 
fatal,  consequences  have  followed  the  taking  of  much  smaller 
doses.  As  a  rule,  a  dose  of  half  an  ounce  or  upwards 
nearly  always  proves  fatal ;  although  instances  are  on  record 
where  complete  recovery  has  taken  place  after  taking  con- 
siderably over  an  ounce  of  the  crystals. 

Fatal  period. — Oxalic  acid,  when  taken  in  full  dose  and  in 
a  concentrated  state,  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  poisons 
known ;  but  equal  quantities  do  not  always  destroy  life  in 
the  same  time.  Dr.  Ogilvie,  of  Coventry,  reports  the  most 
rapidly  fatal  case  known,  where  death  took  place  within  three 
minutes  after  swallowing  an  unknown  quantity  of  the  acid 
(Lancet,  Aug.  23,  1845,  p.  205).  Sir  R.  Christison  calls  it 
"  the  most  rapid  and  unerring  of  all  the  common  poisons." 
He  mentions  two  cases — one  of  a  young  man,  and  another 

v  O 

of  a  young  lady,  who  survived  only  ten  minutes  after  swallow- 
ing one  ounce  of  the  acid.  The  majority  of  the  fatal  cases 
succumb  within  one  hour.  On  the  other  hand,  numerous 
cases  have  been  reported  in  which  death  did  not  occur  for 
several  hours,  and  even  days.  In  one  reported  by  Dr.  Jack- 
son (Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.  p.  17),  life  was 
prolonged  until  the  tenth  day,  after  swallowing  an  ounce 
of  the  crystallized  acid  in  mistake  for  Epsom  salt;  and  Dr. 
Beck  (Med.  Jurisp.,  ii.  p.  439)  alludes  to  an  instance  in  which 


OXALIC    ACID. — MORBID    APPEARANCES.  165 

a  woman  died  from  the  secondary  effects  of  the  poison,  after 
several  months'  suffering. 

Treatment. — The  proper  antidotes  are  chalk,  and  magnesia, 
or  its  carbonate,  suspended  in  water  or  milk.  These  act  by 
forming  insoluble  and  inert  earthy  oxalates.  The  alkalies 
or  their  carbonates  are  inadmissible,  since  the  alkaline  oxa- 
lates are  nearly  as  poisonous  as  the  acid  itself.  After  thus 
neutralizing  the  poison,  free  vomiting  should  be  encouraged 
by  the  use  of  mucilaginous  drinks.  Lime-water  and  oil  may 
be  employed  with  advantage.  Sometimes  the  stomach-pump 
may  be  employed,  as  when  much  liquid  has  been  swallowed 
with  the  poison.  In  the  collapse,  warmth  should  be  applied, 
and  stimulants  freely  used.  The  secondary  symptoms  should 
be  treated  on  general  principles. 

Morbid  appearances. — In  rapidly  fatal  cases  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  gullet  is  usually  more  or 
less  disorganized,  white,  and  softened,  but  often  covered  with 
a  portion  of  the  dark-brown  matter  discharged  from  the 
stomach.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  gullet  is  often  softened 
and  easily  detached,  and  its  vessels  much  congested.  The 
stomach  contains  a  dark-brown  mucous  fluid,  often  acid,  and 
having  at  times  a  gelatinous  consistence.  The  subjacent 
mucous  membrane  will  be  found  generally  pale  and  softened, 
often  without  marks  of  a  decided  inflammation,  if  death  has 
been  rapid.  It  is  soft  and  brittle,  and  easily  removed.  The 
small  vessels  are  filled  with  dark,  coagulated  blood.  In  some 
cases  the  stomach  presents  very  much  the  appearance  of  a 
case  of  poisoning  by  sulphuric  acid.  Sometimes  the  upper 
portion  of  the  small  intestines  presents  a  similar  appearance, 
especially  if  death  has  not  occurred  very  speedily.  In  some 
cases  extensive  congestion  of  the  lungs  has  been  observed, 
together  with  a  fullness  of  the  heart  and  great  vessels;  the 
blood  being  dark-colored. 

As  regards  perforation  of  the  stomach  by  oxalic  acid,  all  the 
authorities  unite  in  saying  that  it  is  of  rare  occurrence.  A  few 
cases  have  been  reported  in  which  extensive  softening  and 
numerous  perforations  were  discovered  after  death ;  but  there 
is  strong  reason  for  believing  that  these  conditions  were 
due  to  the  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  tissues  after  death.  In 


166  MANUAL  OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

protracted  cases,  the  lining  of  the  stomach  is  usually  much, 
thickened  and  corrugated,  and  much  inflamed,  and  probably 
ulcerated.  Congestion  of  the  brain  has  been  observed  in  at 
least  one  fatal  case;  but  it  is  by  no  means  a  constant  lesion. 
The  condition  of  the  heart  varies:  sometimes  its  cavities  are 
found  to  be  full  of  dark  fluid  blood,  and  at  other  times  they 
are  found  empty,  or  containing  merely  a  small  clot. 

Chemical  analysis. — (1)  In  the  solid  state. — Oxalic  acid  occurs, 
when  pure,  in  colorless,  transparent,  four-sided  crystals,  with- 
out odor,  quite  soluble  in  water,  especially  when  hot;  soluble 
also  in  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  ether,  and  nearly  so  in 
chloroform.  It  has  an  intensely  sour  taste,  which  serves  to 
distinguish  it  immediately  from  the  sulphates  of  magnesia 
and  zinc,  which  it  strongly  resembles  in  appearance,  and 
for  which  (especially  the  former)  it  has  been  often  fatally 
mistaken.  Another  characteristic  mark  of  difference  is  the 
action  of  heat:  if  a  crystal  of  oxalic  acid  be  heated  on  plati- 
num-foil over  a  spirit-lamp,  it  will,  if  pure,  be  completely 
volatilized;  while  the  other  substances  leave  a  fixed  residue. 

(2)  As  a  liquid. — First  test  its  acidity  by  litmus-paper;  if 
acid,  evaporate  a  few  drops  to  dryness:  oxalic  acid  will  leave 
a  crystalline  residue,  consisting  of  long  and  slender  prisms. 
The  solution  is  tested,  (a)  by  nitrate  of  silver :  this  yields  an 
abundant  white  precipitate  (oxalate  of  silver),  which  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  chloride  and  the  cyanide  by  being  imme- 
diately soluble  in  cold  nitric  acid  (the  chloride  is  not  soluble 
even  in  boiling  nitric  acid,  and  the  cyanide  is  insoluble  in  the 
cold  acid).  If  the  precipitated  oxalate  of  silver  be  thoroughly 
dried,  and  heated  on  platinum-foil,  it  is  entirely  dissipated  in 
white  vapor,  with  slight  puffs  or  detonations :  this  does  not 
occur  with  the  chloride  or  the  cyanide,  (b)  Sulphate  of  lime. 
Any  solution  of  lime  will  precipitate  oxalic  acid,  but  the  sul- 
phate is  preferable,  because  it  is  not  acted  upon  by  many  sub- 
stances which  precipitate  other  salts  of  lime.  As  the  sulphate 
of  lime  is  not  very  soluble,  it  should  be  added  in  considerable 
quantity  to  the  suspected  oxalic  solution.  A  fine  white  pre- 
cipitate (oxalate  of  lime)  is  slowly  formed,  which  is  imme- 
diately soluble  in  nitric  acid,  more  slowly  in  hydrochloric 
acid  (in  excess),  and  insoluble  in  the  vegetable  acids — acetic, 


OXALIC    ACID. — ANALYSIS.  167 

citric,  and  tartaiic.  The  addition  of  ammonia  or  potassa 
will  enable  the  sulphate  of  lime  to  precipitate  the  oxalic  acid 
more  abundantly  ;  but,  as  this  might  possibly  lead  to  compli- 
cations in  a  medico-legal  case,  it  had  better  not  be  employed. 
The  only  objection  that  can  be  urged  against  the  sulphate  of 
lime  test  is,  that  it  will  precipitate  even  acid  solutions  of 
baryta,  strontia,  and  lead  ;  but  this  is  readily  obviated  by  the 
fact  that  the  sulphates  of  these  bodies  are  entirely  insoluble 
in  nitric  acid;  while  oxalate  of  lime  is  very  soluble  in  it. 
According  to  Prof.  Wormley,  the  precipitate  from  sulphate  of 
lime  shows  under  the  microscope  oval  granule?,  while  that 
from  the  chloride  of  calcium  exhibits  octahedral  crystals  and 
small  plates,  somewhat  larger  than  the  former,  (c)  Chloride 
of  barium,  nitrate  of  strontia,  and  acetate  of  lead  all  precipitate 
oxalic  acid  in  the  form  of  white  crystalline  deposits;  but  these 
tests  are  liable  to  more  fallacies  than  the  two  former  ones, 
and  are,  therefore,  of  inferior  value,  (d)  Sulphate  of  copper 
causes  a  faint  bluish-white,  or  greenish-white,  precipitate, 
which  is  insoluble  in  acetic  acid,  and  almost  so  in  nitric  acid. 
This  reagent  also  precipitates  the  carbonates  and  phosphates, 
and  is  decomposed  by  various  kinds  of  organic  matter,  yield- 
ing a  somewhat  similar  precipitate ;  but  all  these  deposits 
are  distinguished  from  the  oxalate  of  copper  in  being  readily 
soluble  in  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Although  oxalic  acid  is  not 
decomposed  by  organic  mixtures,  yet  these  would  be  very 
apt  to  cause  precipitates  with  two  of  the  tests,  viz.,  nitrate 
of  silver  and  sulphate  of  copper.  Hence  these  reagents  can- 
not be  relied  upon  in  organic  solutions.  If  the  solution  is 
strongly  acid,  and  contains  solid  matters  suspended,  it  should 
first  be  mixed  with  distilled  water,  if  necessary,  and  be  di- 
gested at  a  moderate  heat  for  some  time,  then  cooled  and 
filtered,  and  the  filtrate  concentrated  by  evaporation,  and 
again  filtered.  A  small  quantity  may  now  be  tested  with 
sulphate  of  copper,  as  a  trial  test.  If  this  causes  a  bluish- 
white  precipitate  not  readily  soluble  in  strong  nitric  acid, 
it  is  due  most  probably  to  oxalic  acid.  If  the  filtered  solu- 
tion is  very  strongly  acid,  it  may  be  allowed  to  crystallize 
by  evaporation  ;  and  the  crystals  removed  and  washed,  and 


168  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

dissolved  in  water,  will  respond  to  the  usual  tests.  If  the 
crystals  are  very  highly  colored,  they  should  be  redissolved 
in  warm  water,  and  recrystallized. 

Should,  however,  the  solution  prove  to  be  only  faintly 
acid,  and  mixed  with  much  organic  matter,  after  proper 
warming,  filtering,  and  concentration,  it  should  be  treated 
with  acetate  of  lead  in  excess,  which  will  precipitate  the 
whole  of  the  oxalic  acid  as  oxalate  of  lead.  The  precipitate 
should  be  collected  and  washed  with  water  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid ;  and  afterwards  with  pure  water.  The  moist 
precipitate  is  then  diffused  in  water,  through  which  a  stream 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  passed  until  all  the  lead  is  pre- 
cipitated as  a  sulphide;  along  with  this,  most  of  the  organic 
matter  will  also  be  thrown  down.  By  filtering,  a  clear  acid 
liquid  will  be  obtained:  this  should  be  moderately  heated,  to 
expel  any  excess  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen;  and  on  evapora- 
tion, the  characteristic  crystals  of  oxalic  acid  may  be  obtained. 
These  should  be  purified  by  dissolving  in  alcohol,  and  sub- 
sequently in  water.  The  oxalate  of  lead  obtained  as  above 
may  likewise  be  decomposed  by  boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid;  sulphate  of  lead  is  formed,  which  is  separated  by  fil- 
tration from  the  oxalic  acid  solution.  Neutralize  cautiously 
with  ammonia;  filter  again,  to  remove  an}'  oxalate  of  lead 
resulting  from  the  sulphuric  acid;  then  apply  the  usual  tests 
to  the  clear  solution.  Of  the  two  processes  for  decomposing 
the  oxalate  of  lead,  the  former  is  the  more  reliable  for  obtain- 
ing the  acid  in  the  crystalline  form. 

The  processes  above  mentioned  will  yield  the  same  results 
whether  oxalic  acid  exist  in  the  free  state,  or  combined 
with  an  alkaline  or  earthy  base:  consequently,  they  do  not 
serve  to  determine  this  question.  Now,  in  the  contents  of 
the  stomach,  it  will  probably  happen  that  the  poison  has 
been  completely  neutralized  by  the  antidote  administered — 
lime  or  magnesia:  hence  the  acid  would  exist  as  an  oxalate 
of  one  or  other  of  these  bases.  In  the  latter  case,  the  matters 
may  have  a  neutral  reaction ;  the  suspected  solids  should 
then  be  carefully  collected  in  a  dish  and  thoroughly  washed 
with  warm  water,  and  the  liquid  decanted.  If  this  liquid 
is  acid,  it  should  be  reserved;  but  if  not,  it  may  be  thrown 


OXALIC   ACID. — EXISTENCE   IN    PLANTS.  169 

away.  The  solids  should  then  be  diffused  in  a  little  pure 
water,  and  boiled  with  a  proper  quantity  of  pure  carbonate 
of  potassa,  for  about  half  an  hour;  the  loss  by  evaporation 
being  supplied  by  additions  of  pure  water.  A  double  de- 
composition will  give  rise  to  the  soluble  oxalate  of  potassa 
and  the  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime,  or  of  magnesia.  After 
cooling  and  filtering,  the  filtrate  is  treated  with  excess  of 
acetic  acid,  then  precipitated  by  acetate  of  lead;  the  precipi- 
tate is  then  decomposed  by  means  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ; 
the  sulphide  of  lead  is  separated  by  filtration,  the  clear  liquid 
is  evaporated,  and  tested  as  before  mentioned. 

In  case  of  the  oxalic  acid  existing  in  combination  with 
potash,  as  after  partaking  of  sorrel,  an  approximative,  though 
not  accurate,  method  of  distinguishing  between  the  free  and 
the  combined  acid,  is  to  evaporate  the  original  acid  liquid  to 
dry  ness  on  a  water-bath,  and  extract  the  residue  with  very 
strong  alcohol,  which  dissolves  the  free  acid  if  present,  but 
leaves  undissolved  most  of  the  oxalate.  The  filtered  alcoholic 
solution  is  now  evaporated  to  dry  ness  on  a  water-bath,  the 
residue  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  filtered,  con- 
centrated, and  tested  as  usual.  The  portion  undissolved  by 
the  alcohol  is  stirred  with  distilled  water,  filtered,  and  the 
filtrate  examined  in  the  usual  manner.  The  above  is  Ortila's 
process  for  separating  the  free  acid  from  its  association  with 
an  alkaline  oxalate.  But  Professors  Christison  and  Taylor 
very  properly  object  to  this  being  considered  a  safe  and  re- 
liable process  in  medico-legal  cases,  inasmuch  as  the  strong- 
est alcohol  will  always  acquire  a  slight  acid  reaction  when 
digested  on  binoxalate  of  potassa;  and  hence  an  analyst 
would  be  deceived  if  he  relied  solely  on  this  process,  and 
might  be  led  to  pronounce  that  to  be  free  oxalic  acid,  when 
in  reality  it  was  due  only  to  the  alkaline  oxalate,  accidentally 
taken  by  the  deceased,  as  in  sorrel-soup  ! 

This  leads  us  to  notice  more  particularly  the  fact  already 
adverted  to,  that  certain  articles  of  food — more  particularly 
the  rhubarb,  or  pie-plant,  and  the  sorrel — contain  a  notable 
quantity  of  oxalic  acid,  not,  however,  free,  but  combined  with 
lime  or  potash.  It  might  possibly  happen  that  in  a  case  of 
poisoning,  the  discovery  of  merely  a  small  quantity  of  the 


170  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

acid  by  the  usual  tests  would  be  ascribed  by  the  defense  to 
one  of  these  vegetables  that  had  been  eaten  by  the  deceased. 
The  answer  is  very  obvious:  in  a  case  of  true  oxalic  acid 
poisoning,  the  symptoms  and  the  morbid  lesions  are  of  such 
unequivocal  character  that,  unless  these  can  be  clearly  proven, 
the  discovery  of  a  minute  quantity  of  the  acid  is  no  evidence 
of  poisoning;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  peculiar  symptoms 
and  morbid  lesions  are  present,  then  the  obtaining  of  only 
a  small  quantity  of  the  acid  should  not  negative  the  charge 
of  poisoning.  Sir  R.  Christison  regards  oxalic  acid  as  one 
of  the  few  poisons  "of  whose  operation  distinct  evidence  may 
sometimes  (though  certainly  not  alwaj's)  be  found  in  the 
symptoms."  "  If,"  says  he,  "  a  person  immediately  after 
swallowing  a  solution  of  a  crystalline  salt,  which  tasted  purely 
and  strongly  acid,  is  attacked  with  burning  in  the  throat, 
then  with  burning  in  the  stomach,  vomiting,  particularly  of 
bloody  matter,  imperceptible  pulse,  and  excessive  languor, 
and  dies  in  half  an  hour,  or,  still  more,  in  twenty,  fifteen,  or 
ten  minutes,  I  do  not  know  any  fallacy  that  can  interfere 
with  the  conclusion  that  oxalic  acid  was  the  cause  of  death. 
No  parallel  disease  begins  so  abruptly,  and  terminates  so  soon, 
and  no  other  crystalline  poison  has  the  same  effects."  (On 
Poisons, p.  226.)  To  this  Prof.  Guy  adds:  "  The  post-mortem 
appearances  are  scarcely  less  characteristic.  The  wrinkled 
and  corroded  gullet,  the  pale,  shriveled,  and  partially  de- 
tached mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  the  dark  veins 
ramifying  on  its  surface,  and  the  dark-brown  grumous  matter 
which  fills  its  cavity,  point  strongly  to  the  action  of  a  power- 
ful corrosive  poison,  while  the  absence  of  the  colored  spots  on 
the  skin  would  preclude  the  supposition  of  the  effect  being 
due  to  either  of  the  mineral  acids."  (Guy's  For.  Med.,  p.  595.) 
Is  oxalic  acid  a  normal  constituent  of  the  body? — It  is  ex- 
tremely doubtful  if  this  acid,  in  the  free  state,  ever  exists 
in  the  animal  system.  Liebig  and  others  suppose  that  one 
of  the  products  of  the  ultimate  oxidation  of  uric  acid  in  the 
human  system  is  oxalic  acid :  this  change  can  be  readily  ex- 
hibited in  a  chemical  formula,  but  no  one,  we  believe,  has 
ever  demonstrated  its  presence  in  the  blood  or  in  the  tissues. 
Orfila,  Christison,  and  Taylor  all  failed  to  detect  it  in  the 


OXALIC   ACID. — EXAMINATION   OF   STAINS.  171 

blood  or  in  the  organs,  in  cases  where  very  large  doses  had 
proved  fatal,  and  even  where  it  had  been  previously  injected 
into  the  femoral  vein  of  an  animal  which  died  in  thirty 
seconds  (Christison,  On  Poisons,  p.  219).  Nevertheless,  its 
presence  in  the  circulation,  in  some  form,  would  seem  to  be 
shown  by  the  fact,  already  cited,  that  in  two  instances  on 
record,  leeches  applied  to  persons  poisoned  by  this  acid 
speedily  fell  off  dead.  Moreover,  Orfila  states  that  he  suc- 
ceeded in  detecting  the  acid  in  the  urine  of  a  person  poisoned 
with  it  (Toxicol.,  i.  190).  The  oxalate  of  lime  is  frequently 
found  in  the  urine  as  the  result  of  disease,  but  never  as  a 
normal  constituent.  It  also  occurs  as  one  variety  of  calculus 
in  the  bladder  (mulberry  calculus).  In  case  of  poisoning,  the 
oxalic  acid  is,  no  doubt,  excreted  by  the  kidney  as  oxalate  of 
lime,  which  can  easily  be  detected  in  the  urine  by  the  micro- 
scope, in  the  well-known  form  of  octahedral  crystals.  It  must, 
however,  be  remembered  that  these  same  crystals  will  be  found 
in  the  urine  of  persons  who  have  partaken  of  food  containing 
the  oxalate  of  lime, — such  as  the  rhubarb  or  the  sorrel-plant. 

In  examining  the  urine  for  free  oxalic  acid,  or  a  soluble 
oxalate,  a  little  acetic  acid  should  first  be  added,  and  then 
it  should  be  evaporated  to  about  one-fourth  its  bulk,  and 
filtered :  to  the  filtrate  an  excess  of  acetate  of  lead  is  added, 
and  the  resulting  oxalate  of  lead,  after  thorough  washing,  is 
decomposed  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  the  filtered  solu- 
tion tested  as  above. 

Quantitative  analysis. — Oxalic  acid  from  pure  solutions  is 
best  estimated  as  oxalate  of  lead.  The  solution  is  first  treated 
with  a  little  acetic  acid,  and  then  with  a  solution  of  acetate 
of  lead  in  excess;  and  the  precipitate  collected  on  a  filter  of 
known  weight,  completely  washed,  and  dried  at  212° ;  and 
then  weighed.  Every  100  parts  of  the  oxalate  of  lead  thus 
obtained,  represents  42.5  parts  of  the  crystallized  acid. 

If  the  acid  has  been  precipitated  as  oxalate  of  lime,  this 
should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  dried,  and  then  exposed 
for  a  few  minutes  to  a  dull  red  heat,  by  which  it  is  converted 
into  carbonate  of  lime;  every  100  parts  of  which  correspond 
with  126  parts  of  crystallized  oxalic  acid. 

Examination  of  stains. — Oxalic  acid  does  not  corrode  cloth 


172  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

and  other  textures  like  the  mineral  acids;  but  it  very  slowly 
produces  orange-colored  spots,  with  a  red  margin,  on  black 
cloth,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  other  vegetable  acids. 
Proofs  of  its  presence  in  these  stains  may  be  obtained  by 
soaking  them  in  hot  water,  and  applying  the  proper  tests 
to  the  solution.  The  acid  is  sometimes  used  to  remove 
writing-ink  in  cases  of  forgery;  but,  usually,  traces  of  iron, 
existing  in  the  ink,  are  left  upon  the  paper,  which  can  easily 
be  detected  by  wetting  it  with  a  solution  of  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium,  which  will  turn  it  blue. 

BINOXALATE  OF  POTASSA  (Salt  of  sorrel. — Essential  salt  of 
lemons). — This  salt  is  much  used  in  the  arts  for  bleaching, 
and  for  removing  ink-stains:  it  is  sold  under  the  absurd 
name  of  essential  salt  of  lemons.  Its  poisonous  properties  are 
almost  as  violent  and  active  as  those  of  oxalic  acid.  Half 
an  ounce  produced  death  in  a  lady,  in  eight  minutes,  after 
violent  pain  and  convulsions  (Jour,  de  Chim.  Med.,  1842, 
p.  211).  In  another  case,  a  teaspoonfnl  of  this  salt  was  taken 
for  three  successive  mornings,  causing  severe  vomiting;  an 
hour  after  the  third  dose,  the  patient  died  (Ann.  d'Hyg.  Pub., 
1842,  xxvii.  p.  422).  A  case  is  reported  of  a  young  lady,  aged 
twenty,  who  recovered  after  swallowing  an  ounce  of  this  salt 
dissolved  in  water.  The  symptoms  were  vomiting,  a  scalding 
sensation  of  the  throat  and  stomach,  great  depression,  faint- 
ness,  cold  and  clammy  skin,  and  feeble  pulse.  There  were 
also  great  dimness  of  vision,  redness  of  eyes,  and  dilatation 
of  the  pupils  (Med.  Gaz.,  xxvii.  p.  480). 

Chemical  analysis. — This  salt  commonly  occurs  in  crystals; 
it  is  not  very  soluble  in  cold  water ;  much  more  so  in  hot 
water;  taste  very  acid.  It  is  distinguished  from  oxalic  acid 
by — (1)  its  plumose  crystalline  form,  seen  by  evaporating  a 
few  drops  on  a  glass  slide.  (2)  By  heating  a  portion  on  pla- 
tinum-foil: an  ash  is  left  (carbonate  of  potash),  while  oxalic 
acid  is  entirely  dissipated.  It  may  readily  be  distinguished 
from  the  bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of  tartar),  for  which  it 
has  been  fatally  mistaken,  by  the  latter  not  being  precipitated 
by  the  sulphate  of  lime.  Lime-water  will  also  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish them  :  it  throws  down  a  white  precipitate  with  each, 
but  the  tartrate  of  lime  is  immediately  redissolved  by  tartaric 


POISONING    BY  TARTARIC    ACID.  173 

acid,  while  the  oxalate  of  lime  remains  insoluble.  Common 
writing-ink  immediately  loses  its  color  on  being  warmed  with 
binoxalate  of  potassa,  but  it  is  unaffected  by  the  bitartrate 
(Taylor).  This  salt  is  a  natural  constituent  of  the  sorrel,  which 
is  used  considerably  in  France  as  an  article  of  food. 

SECTION  V. 

POISONING   BY   TARTARIC   ACID. — CITRIC   ACID. — ACETIC   ACID. 

These  acids,  although  not  usually  classed  among  poisons, 
are  nevertheless  capable  of  destroying  life,  if  taken  in  large 
doses,  and  in  concentrated  strength. 

TARTARIC  ACID. — This  is  the  acid  of  grapes,  and  of  a  num- 
ber of  other  fruits.  It  occurs  in  large,  oblique,  rhombic,  color- 
less crystals ;  quite  soluble  in  water;  less  so  in  alcohol.  It 
may  be  recognized  by  the  following  characters:  (a)  Its  solution 
gives  no  precipitate  with  nitrate  of  silver,  which  distinguishes 
it  from  oxalic  acid  ;  (6)  on  evaporation  of  a  few  drops  on  glass, 
it  yields  plumose  crystals;  (c)  it  precipitates  a  solution  of 
potash  or  its  salts,  when  of  moderate  strength,  as  a  granular 
powder  (cream  of  tartar) :  this  precipitate  is  facilitated  by 
stirring  with  a  glass  rod,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  little  alco- 
hol ;  (d)  when  the  powdered  acid  is  heated  on  platinum-foil, 
it  burns  with  a  pale  reddish-colored  flame,  evolving  a  peculiar 
odor,  and  leaving  an  abundant  residue  of  carbon. 

Several  cases  of  poisoning  by  this  acid  are  on  record.  One 
is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Taylor,  in  which  a  young  man  swallowed, 
by  mistake,  one  ounce  of  tartaric  acid  dissolved  in  half  a  pint 
of  water.  He  immediately  experienced  very  violent  symp- 
toms, such  as  burning  in  the  throat  and  stomach,  the  patient 
comparing  his  sensations  to  being  on  tire.  Vomiting  set  in, 
and,  although  the  proper  antidotes  were  administered,  he  died 
in  nine  days.  On  inspection,  the  whole  alimentary  canal  was 
found  violently  inflamed.  Another  case  of  fatal  poisoning 
by  this  acid  was  published  by  M.  Devergie  (Ann.  d'Hyg., 
1851,  ii.  p.  432);  and  two  cases — one  of  them  fatal — by  M. 
Tardieu  (loc.  cit.,  p.  253). 

The  proper  treatment  is  free  vomiting,  to  be  followed  by 
the  exhibition  of  the  alkaline  carbonates,  chalk,  or  magnesia. 

12 


174  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  resulting  inflammation  is  to  be  treated  on  general  prin- 
ciples. 

From  organic  mixtures,  or  contents  of  the  stomach,  the  acid 
may  be  extracted  by  the  process  of  dialysis  (ante,  p.  113),  or  by 
digestion  in  alcohol,  which  will  dissolve  it,  and  afterwards 
deposit  it  on  evaporation. 

CITRIC  ACID. — This  is  the  acid  of  lemons.  Experiments  on 
animals  would  seem  to  show  that  it  is  a  more  powerful  poison 
than  tartaric  acid.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  fatal  case  of 
poisoning  in  the  human  subject  has  been  reported. 

The  proper  treatment  to  be  pursued  is  the  same  as  that 
pointed  out  for  tartaric  acid. 

ACETIC  ACID. — This  acid  is  found  in  the  shops  under  several 
forms.  Common  vinegar  is  a  very  dilute  impure  variety;  it 
contains  on  an  average  from  four  to  five  per  cent,  of  acetic 
acid.  The  vinegar  of  commerce  frequently  contains  sulphuric 
acid  as  an  impurity. 

Pyroligneous  acid,  or  wood  vinegar,  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  wood,  contains  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  strong  acid.  A  third  form  is  the  concentrated, 
or  pure  acetic  acid.  This  is  a  colorless,  pungent  liquid,  pos- 
sessing a  peculiar  odor,  acting  upon  the  animal  tissues  as  a 
violent  irritant,  or  even  as  a  corrosive. 

Orfila  reports  the  case  of  a  young  woman  who  was  found 
dying  upon  the  highway :  she  suffered  from  convulsions, 
complained  of  great  abdominal  pain,  and  died  in  a  short 
time.  On  inspection,  the  stomach  was  found  of  a  deep-black 
color,  the  vessels  being  gorged  with  dark  coagulated  blood. 
The  examination  showed  that  death  had  been  caused  by 
strong  acetic  acid,  which  had  been  taken  probably  as  an 
abortive.  (Toxicologie,  ii.  p.  198.) 

The  treatment  is  similar  to  that  mentioned  for  tartan e  acid. 

Analysis. — Acetic  acid  in  organic  mixtures  may  generally 
be  recognized  by  its  peculiar  odor:  if  this  does  not  suffice, 
the  mixture  should  be  distilled  in  a  glass  retort,  the  distillate 
neutralized  with  carbonate  of  potassa,  and  evaporated.  The 
resulting  acetate  of  potassa,  when  distilled  with  sulphuric  acid, 
yields  the  pure  acetic  acid. 


POISONING    BY   THE   ALKALIES.  175 


CHAPTER    XII. 

POISONING    BY   THE   ALKALIES    AND    THEIR    SALTS  ;    ALSO    BY   THE 
EARTHY   SALTS. 

SECTION  I. 

POISONING   BY   THE   ALKALIES. — POTASSA. — SODA. — AMMONIA. 

THE  effects  of  the  strong  alkalies  upon  the  animal  system 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  mineral  acids  :  like  the  latter, 
in  their  concentrated  state  they  are  powerfully  corrosive, 
attacking  the  tissues  by  virtue  of  their  chemical  affinities, 
and  causing  complete  destruction  or  disorganization  of  the 
parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  Although  they  are 
in  common  use  for  domestic  purposes,  they  are  very  seldom 
taken  or  administered  as  poisons,  except  accidentally. 

Pure  caustic  potassa  and  soda  are  kept  almost  exclusively 
in  chemical  laboratories.  The  substances  generally  known 
as  potash  and  soda  are  the  impure  carbonates ;  they  are  sold 
under  the  names  of  potash  and  pearlash,  and  soda-ash,  and  they 
contain  a  varied  proportion  of  the  true  alkali.  They  are, 
however,  powerfully  caustic  in  their  effects,  and  the  remarks 
that  follow  have  reference  to  them  as  well  as  to  the  pure 
alkalies.  Their  general  effects  upon  the  system  are  so  very 
similar  that  these  may  conveniently  be  considered  together. 
Potassa  and  soda  are  usually  spoken  of  as  \\\Q  fixed  alkalies; 
whilst  ammonia  is  termed  the  volatile  alkali.  The  latter,  to- 
gether with  its  salts,  is  dissipated  by  heat;  while  the  former 
remain  fixed.  By  this  means  they  are  easily  distinguished 
from  each  other. 

Symptoms. — When  swallowed  in  a  concentrated  solution, 
a  nauseous,  acrid  taste  is  immediately  perceived.  This  is  ac- 
companied by  a  burning  sensation  in  the  throat  and  gullet, 
which  extends  to  the  stomach,  and  very  soon  changes  to  acute 


176  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

and  violent  pain,  which  is  increased  by  pressure,  and  followed 
by  excessive  vomiting  of  mucous  matters  mixed  with  blood. 
Sometimes  the  very  acrid  and  nauseous  taste  of  the  substance 
causes  it  to  be  immediately  rejected  from  the  mouth  without 
being  swallowed.  Purging  of  stringy  mucus  mixed  with 
blood  soon  comes  on.  There  is  difficulty  of  swallowing, 
with  hoarseness  of  voice,  and  cough.  Great  muscular  pros- 
tration soon  occurs,  with  small  and  frequent  pulse,  clammy 
perspiration,  and  other  evidences  of  collapse.  If  death  does 
not  come  on  very  soon,  there  may  be  sloughing  of  the  fauces, 
with  increased  difficulty  of  swallowing,  constant  vomiting  of 
bloody  mucus,  and  tenesmus.  Stricture  of  the  oasophagus 
is  a  veVy  common  result,  as  in  the  case  of  poisoning  by  the 
mineral  acids.  The  patient  may  live  for  months,  suffer- 
ing greatly,  and  at  last  perish  from  starvation,  owing  to 
an  inability  to  swallow  food. 

The  effects  of  swallowing  a  strong  solution  of  ammonia  are 
similar  to  those  occasioned  by  the  fixed  alkalies,  except  that 
they  are  occasionally  more  severe  and  rapid  in  their  action. 
Cases  are  recorded  where  death  ensued  in  six  hours;  and  one 
is  quoted  by  Sir  R.  Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  194),  in  which 
a  quantity  of  liquid  ammonia  poured  into  the  mouth  of  a  man 
who  had  been  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  destroyed  life  in  four 
minutes.  In  this  case,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  fatal  event 
was  hastened  by  the  irritant  impression  of  the  vapor  upon  the 
organs  of  respiration.  Dr.  Tayior  records  the  case  of  a  gentle- 
man who  died  in  three  days  after  swallowing  a  solution  of 
ammonia  by  mistake.  The  rapor  of  ammonia  has  frequently 
proved  fatal  from  being  accidentally  or  incautiously  inhaled. 
If  the  patient  survives  the  primary  effects  of  poisoning  from 
solution  of  ammonia,  he  is  more  likely  to  recover  ultimately, 
than  from  poisoning  by  potash  or  soda. 

Fatal  dose. — As  in  the  case  of  the  corrosive  acids,  the  fatal 
result  in  poisoning  by  the  alkalies  depends  rather  upon  the 
degree  of  concentration,  than  upon  the  mere  quantity  taken. 
The  smallest  fatal  dose  recorded  is  in  a  case  mentioned  by 
Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  328),  where  an  ounce  and  a  half 
of  the  common  solution  of  potash  of  the  shops,  containing 
about  forty  grains,  proved  fatal  to  an  adult  in  seven  weeks. 


POISONING  BY  THE  ALKALIES. — MORBID  APPEARANCES.     177 

Several  other  cases  have  occurred  in  which  half  an  ounce 
caused  death.  In  each  of  these  instances,  death  was  due  to 
the  secondary  effects  of  the  poison. 

Strong  solution  of  ammonia  has  proved  fatal  in  the  dose  of 
two  drachms.  But  instances  of  recovery  from  taking  this 
alkali  are  more  frequent  than  from  the  others.  Cases  are 
on  record  in  which  persons  have  survived  after  swallowing 
more  than  an  ounce  of  liquor  ammonias. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  of  poisoning  by  the  alkalies  or 
their  carbonates,  the  prompt  use  of  some  of  the  mild  vege- 
table acids  is  indicated:  vinegar  and  water,  or  lemon-juice, 
answers  well.  Large  quantities  of  olive  oil,  or  of  other  bland 
oil,  are  also  useful :  these  act  by  converting  the  alkali  into 
a  soap.  Copious  draughts  of  milk  have  also  been  recom- 
mended. The  stomach-pump  should  not  be  used,  on  account 
of  the  risk  of  perforating  the  oesophagus.  In  poisoning  by 
vapor  of  ammonia,  the  inhalation  of  the  vapor  of  acetic  acid 
would  be  beneficial.  The  resulting  inflammatory  symptoms 
should  be  treated  upon  general  principles. 

Morbid  appearances. — In  acute  cases,  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  throat  and  gullet  is  softened  and  corroded,  the  oesoph- 
agus, stomach,  and  intestines  are  inflamed,  their  mucous 
membrane  abraded  more  or  less  in  patches;  sometimes  there 
are  extravasations  of  disorganized  blood  upon  the  walls  of 
these  organs,  giving  them  a  blackish  appearance.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  mineral  acids,  we  may  sometimes  find  large  por- 
tions of  the  epithelium  detached  from  the  mouth,  gullet, 
and  stomach.  In  chronic  cases,  besides  the  above  appear- 
ances, there  is  usually  great  contraction  of  the  oesophagus 
and  stomach.  The  walls  of  the  stomach  are  also  sometimes 
much  thickened,  and  the  lining  membrane  completely  de- 
stroyed. Sometimes  the  larynx  and  bronchi  are  implicated  : 
this  is  particularly  apt  to  be  the  case  in  poisoning  by  am- 
monia. 

In  the  case  of  poisoning  by  ammonia  quoted  above,  which 
proved  fatal  in  three  days,  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
trachea  and  bronchi  was  softened,  and  covered  with  layers 
of  false  membrane,  whilst  the  larger  bronchi  were  com- 
pletely obstructed  by  casts  of  this  membrane.  The  mucous 


178  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

membrane  of  the  gullet  was  softened,  and  the  lower  end 
of  the  tube  completely  destroyed.  The  anterior  wall  of  the 
stomach  contained  an  aperture  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter,  through  which  the  contents  of  the  organ  had 
escaped.  The  blackened  and  congested  appearance  of  the 
lining  membrane  somewhat  resembled  that  seen  in  poisoning 
by  sulphuric  or  oxalic  acid.  The  immediate  cause  of  death 
was  asphyxia,  resulting  from  inflammation  of  the  air-tubes. 
No  trace  of  ammonia  could  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis, 
after  death. 

Chemical  properties  of  the  alkalies. — The  alkalies  as  a  class 
are  distinguished  from  all  other  bodies  by  their  not  being 
precipitated  either  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  or  carbonate  of  ammonia.  From  their  carbonates 
they  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  action  of  an  acid,  as 
hydrochloric,  which  causes  effervescence  with  the  latter  (from 
the  escape  of  carbonic  acid),  but  not  with  the  former. 

Corrosive  sublimate  produces  with  the  fixed  alkalies  a 
yellow  precipitate,  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  the  alkali ;  with 
ammonia,  it  causes  a  white  precipitate,  soluble  in  an  excess 
of  the  reagent. 

All  the  alkalies  possess  in  common  the  properties  of  neu- 
tralizing acids;  of  browning  a  solution  of  turmeric;  and 
of  restoring  the  blue  color  to  reddened  litmus.  They  unite 
with  oils  and  fats  to  form  soaps. 

The  special  chemical  properties  of  the  three  alkalies  will 
now  be  considered  separately. 

Chemical  analysis  of  Potassa  and  its  carbonate.  —  Caustic 
potassa,  when  pure,  occurs  generally  in  the  form  of  thin 
sticks,  nearly  white.  It  is  very  deliquescent,  and  if  exposed 
to  the  air  it  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  and  is  thus  partially  con- 
verted into  the  carbonate.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
also  in  alcohol :  the  latter  property  enables  us  to  separate  it 
from  the  carbonate,  which  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  The  im- 
pure carbonate  (potash  and  pearlash)  occurs  in  grayish-white 
masses:  like  the  former,  it  is  highly  alkaline;  it  has  an  uncj- 
tuous  feel,  is  very  acrid  to  the  taste,  and  is  freely  soluble  in 
water.  The  pure  carbonate  (salt  of  tartar)  occurs  in  white 
granules:  its  properties  are  similar  to  those  of  the  others. 


POISONING    BY   THE    ALKALIES. — TESTS.  179 

A  solution  of  potash,  or  of  its  compounds,  is  distinguished 
(1)  by  bichloride  of  platinum,  which  precipitates  from  it,  if  not 
too  dilute,  the  yellow  double  chloride  of  platinum  and  potas- 
sium, which  soon  assumes  the  form  of  beautiful  octahedral 
crystals.  These  are  well  shown  with  a  drop  or  two  of  the 
reagents  under  the  microscope.  According  to  Prof.  Wormley 
(Micro-Chem.  of  Pois.,  p.  75),  one  five-hundredth  of  a  grain 
of  potash  in  the  form  of  chloride,  in  one  drop  of  water,  will 
exhibit  this  test  satisfactorily. 

Fallacy. — Bichloride  of  platinum  will  yield  a  similar  yellow 
crystalline  precipitate  with  the  salts  of  ammonia:  the  ab- 
sence of  these  must  therefore  first  be  secured  before  the 
presence  of  potassa  can  be  established.  This  may  easily 
be  done  by  heating  a  little  of  the  suspected  liquid  in  a 
test-tube  along  with  hj-drate  of  lime,  or  caustic  potash  :  if 
ammonia  be  present,  the  strong  odor  of  this  alkali  will  be 
perceived.  Or  the  yellow  precipitate  may  be  dried  and  heated 
to  redness:  the  potassium  compound  will  be  resolved  into 
chloride  of  potassium  and  metallic  platinum;  while  the  am- 
monium compound  will  leave  only  a  residue  of  metallic 
platinum.  The  action  of  nitrate  of  silver  upon  the  solutions 
of  these  two  residues  will  at  once  show  the  difference,  by 
yielding  a  precipitate  (chloride  of  silver)  with  the  former, 
but  none  with  the  latter. 

(2)  Tartarie  acid,  or  the  tartrate  of  soda,  throws  down  from. 
a  rather  strong  solution  of  potassa  and  its  salts  a  white  crys- 
talline precipitate  of  cream  of  tartar.  If  the  potash  solution 
is  dilute,  the  precipitate  is  retarded;  but  it  may  be  hastened 
by  stirring  with  a  glass  rod,  when  it  shows  itself  in  streaks 
upon  the  sides  of  the  tube;  it  is  also  facilitated  by  the  addi- 
tion of  alcohol.  The  precipitate  is  soluble  in  the  mineral 
acids,  and  in  the  free  alkalies  and  their  carbonates.  Hence, 
when  a  salt  of  potassa,  e.g.  the  nitrate,  is  treated  with  free 
tartaric  acid,  unless  the  former  be  in  strong  solution,  the 
nitric  acid  which  is  set  free  by  decomposition  may  prevent 
the  precipitation  of  cream  of  tartar.  On  this  account  it  has 
been  recommended  to  employ  the  acid  tartrate  of  soda  in 
preference  to  the  free  tartaric  acid,  as  the  reagent.  This  is 
made  quite  readily  by  dividing  a  strong  solution  of  tartaric 


180  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

acid  into  two  equal  parts;    neutralizing  one  of  them  with 
pure  carbonate  of  soda,  and  then  adding  the  other. 

In  using  the  above  test,  the  absence  of  ammonia  should 
first  be  proved,  silice  this  alkali  yields  a  similar  precipitate 
with  the  reagent. 

(3)  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  soda    by  neutralizing 
with  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  evaporating  on  a  slip  of  glass: 
the  crystals  exhibit  the  characteristic  appearance  of  nitrate 
of  potassa — long  and  slender  prisms.     Soda,  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  yields  rhombic  plates. 

(4)  Heated  on  a  clean  platinum  wire  in  the  reducing  flame 
of  the  blowpipe,  potassium  compounds  impart  a  violet  color 
to  the  flame.     This  color  may,  however,  be  completely  dis- 
guised if  there  is  the  smallest  portion  of  soda  present,  which 
would  give  a  bright-yellow  color  to  the  flame. 

Other  tests  have  been  proposed,  but  they  are  of  inferior 
value.  These  are  carbazotic  or  pieric  acid,  perchloric  acid,  and 
hydrofluosilicic  acid. 

The  spectrum  process  will  detect  the  minutest  portion  of 
any  potassium  compound,  producing  two  distinct  and  well- 
marked  lines  or  bands — one  red,  and  the  other  indigo-blue. 
(See  Quar.  Jour,  of  Chem.  Soc.,  Oct.  1860.) 

In  organic  mixtures. — The  solution  will  possess  a  strong  alka- 
line reaction,  unless  previously  neutralized,  and  a  soapy  feel : 
the  absence  of  ammonia  should  fi^t  be  established  (ante,  p, 
179).  The  mass  may  next  be  evaporated  to  dry  ness,  and  then 
heated  to  redness  in  a  capsule,  to  char  the  organic  matters.  It 
is  then  to  be  digested  in  water,  and  filtered:  the  alkali  will 
be  recovered  in  the  form  of  carbonate.  If  it  is  desired  to  sepa- 
rate any  free  alkali  from  its  carbonate,  in  the  original  mass, 
this  may  be  effected  by  evaporating  carefully  to  dry  ness,  and 
digesting  the  cooled  residue  in  absolute  alcohol,  which  will 
dissolve  out  the  alkali,  and  leave  the  carbonate  and  other 
salts,  together  with  most  of  the  organic  matters,  untouched. 
The  alcoholic  solution  is  now  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
neutralized  by  hydrochloric  acid,  and  tested  as  above;  or,  if 
much  organic  matter  is  present,  the  alcoholic  residue  should 
be  treated  as  above  mentioned,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in 
water;  and  the  solution  examined  in  the  ordinary  manner. 


POISONING    BY   THE   ALKALIES. — TESTS   FOR    SODA.         181 

Quantitative  estimate. — Potash  is  estimated  quantitatively  by 
precipitating  it  as  chloride  of  platinum  and  potassium  (see 
ante,  p.  179).  The  precipitate  should  be  washed  with  strong 
alcohol,  and  then  collected  on  a  weighed  filter,  washed  again, 
dried,  and  weighed.  Every  100  parts  by  weight  of  the  double 
salt  thus  ob'taiued  represent  22.5  parts  of  caustic  potassa,  or 
28.25  parts  of  anhydrous  carbonate. 

Chemical  analysis  of  Soda  and  its  carbonate.  —  The  general 
appearance  and  characters  of  caustic  soda  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  caustic  potassa.  The  impure  carbonate  (soda-ash) 
occurs  in  granular  lumps.  The  pure  carbonate  is  in  the 
form  of  large  colorless  crystals;  it  contains  much  water 
of  crystallization.  They  effloresce,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
and  are  quite  soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol.  All  the 
soda  compounds  are  soluble  in  water,  except  the  antimoniate, 
carbazotate,  and  tartrate. 

(1)  Antimoniate  of  potassa  will  throw  down  from  a  strong 
solution  of  a  soda  salt  a  white,  crystalline  antimoniate  of 
soda.     The  presence  of  the  carbonate  of  potassa  prevents 
the  above  precipitation,  in  consequence  of  dissolving  it.     As 
many  of  the  metallic  salts  are  likewise  precipitated  by  this 
reagent,  their  absence  should  first  be  ascertained  before  con- 
cluding that  the  precipitate  is  a  soda  compound. 

(2)  Polarized  light,  as  first  suggested  by  Prof.  Andrews 
(Chem.  Gaz.,  x.  p.  378),  affords  a  beautiful  method  of  dis- 
tinguishing soda  and  its  compounds  from  potassa.     Bichlo- 
ride of  platinum,  which  precipitates  the  latter,  has  no  such 
effect  upon  the  former  alkali,  although  it  forms  with  it  the 
double  chloride  of  platinum  and  sodium.     The  latter  salt 
possesses  the  depolarizing  action ;  but  the  former  does  not. 
The  method  of  applying  the  test  is  as  follows.     A  drop  of 
the  alkaline  solution  (converted  into  the  chloride)  is  placed 
on  a  glass  slide,  and  a  drop. of  the  solution  of  bichloride  of 
platinum  is  added,  avoiding  any  excess.     The  mixture  is 
evaporated  by  a  gentle  heat  until  it  begins  to  crystallize ;  it 
is  then  placed  in  the  field  of  a  microscope  furnished  with 
a  good  polarizer.     On  turning  the  analyzer  till  the  field  be- 
comes perfectly  dark,  and  carefully  excluding  the  light  later- 
ally, the  crystals  exhibit  a  beautiful  display  of  colors ;  whilst 


182  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

if  no  soda  be  present,  but  only  the  bichloride  of  platinum, 
or  potassa,  no  effect  is  produced.  Prof.  Andrews  states  that 
this  test  is  so  extremely  delicate  that  he  obtained  by  it  a 
distinct  reaction  from  a  quantity  of  chloride  of  sodium 
representing  only  about  one  eight-hundred-and-twenty-five- 
thousandth.  part  of  a  grain  of  anhydrous  alkali. 

Prof.  "Worm ley  confirms  the  delicacy  of  the  above  test 
(Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  86).  He  recommends  to  evap- 
orate the  mixture  on  the  glass  spontaneously,  and  not  to 
use  heat:  by  this  means,  larger  crystals  of  the  double  salt 
are  observed. 

(3)  Both  carbazotic  and  tartaric  acids  will  cause  crystalline 
precipitates  in  concentrated  solutions  of  soda,  which  are  quite 
distinct  in  appearance  from  the  corresponding  salts  of  potassa. 
These  tests,  however,  are  inferior  in  value  to  the  preceding 
ones. 

(4)  Heated  on  a  clean    platinum  wire  in  the   blowpipe 
flame,  it  imparts  to  it  a  bright-yellow  color.     The  spectrum 
process  also  yields  a  very  characteristic  yellow  band. 

The  mode  of  detection  of  soda  in  organic  mixture  is  the 
sjime  as  that  employed  in  the  case  of  potassa. 

Chemical  analysis  of  Ammonia  and  its  salts. — Solution  of  am- 
monia (Aqua  or  Liquor  Ammonias)  is  a  colorless  limpid  fluid, 
having  a  very  strong  pungent  odor,  an  acrid  alkaline  taste, 
and  a  strong  alkaline  reaction.  When  heated,  gaseous 
ammonia  is  given  off;  and  when  evaporated  to  dryness,  it 
leaves  no  residue.  It  gives  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper  a  characteristic  purple  color. 

The  salts  of  ammonia  are  colorless,  and  volatilize  when 
heated.  They  are  mostly  soluble  in  water.  Heated  with 
the  fixed  alkalies,  or  with  hydrate  of  lime,  they  readily  de- 
compose, evolving  the  characteristic  odor  of  ammonia.  If 
the  experiment  be  performed  in  a  small  test-tube,  and  a 
piece  of  moistened  reddened  litmus-paper  be  placed  within 
the  tube,  the  disengaged  ammoniacal  gas  will  very  soon  re- 
store the  blue  color  to  the  paper;  and  if  a  glass  rod  holding 
a  drop  or  two  of  hydrochloric  acid  be  held  over  the  mouth 
of  the  tube,  the  characteristic  white  fumes  of  chloride  of 
ammonium  will  be  observed. 


POISONING    BY   THE    ALKALIES. — TESTS    FOR    AMMONIA.     183 

The  above  methods  are  amply  sufficient  to  demonstrate 
the  presence  of  ammonia  or  its  salts.  Several  other  cor- 
roborative tests  may,  however,  be  employed.  These  are  bi- 
chloride of  platinum,  which  gives  with  ammonia  a  precipitate 
(chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonium)  very  similar  in  color 
and  crystalline  form  to  that  obtained  from  potash.  The 
mode  of  distinguishing  between  them  has  been  pointed  out 
above  (p.  179).  Tartaric  acid  and  the  acid  tartrate  of  soda  yield 
with  solutions  of  ammonia  a  precipitate  almost  identical  in 
appearance  with  that  given  by  potassa.  Carbazotic  acid  like- 
wise throws  down  from  solutions  of  ammonia  a  precipitate 
of  yellow  crystals,  differing,  however,  in  appearance  from 
the  corresponding  precipitates  with  the  fixed  alkalies. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the 
pure  alkali,  by  its  effervescing  with  acids. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Unless  present  in  very  minute 
quantity,  free  ammonia  will  always  be  made  evident  by  its 
odor,  and  by  its  alkaline  reaction.  Both  ammonia  and  its  car- 
bonate may  be  separated  from  organic  mixtures  by  distillation 
at  a  moderate  heat,  and  collecting  the  vapors  by  means  of  a 
small  bent  delivery-tube  beneath  a  small  quantity  of  water 
contained  in  a  well-cooled  receiver.  The  solution  of  am- 
monia thus  obtained  can  be  tested  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

If  there  is  no  evidence  of  ammonia  in  the  distillate  after 
conducting  the  process  for  some  time,  this  would  be  proof 
that  there  is  no  free  alkali  or  its  volatile  salt  present.  It 
might,  however,  be  in  the  retort  in  the  form  of  one  of  the 
more  fixed  salts.  To  ascertain  this,  the  contents  of  the  retort 
are  to  be  treated  with  strong  alcohol,  which  will  coagulate 
the  organic  matter;  filter  the  solution,  and  distill  it  along 
with  some  hydrate  of  lime,  or  solution  of  potassa.  Any 
ammoniacal  salt  will  now  undergo  decomposition,  and  free 
ammonia  will  come  over,  and  may  be  received  under  water, 
or  in  a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  all  animal  matters  in  a  state 
of  decomposition  give  out  ammonia:  hence  it  maybe  im- 
possible, under  such  conditions,  to  decide  upon  the  true  source 
of  the  alkali.  In  a  medico-legal  case,  we  would  be  materi- 
ally aided  in  the  investigation  by  the  quantity  of  the  poison 


184  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

recovered,  and  also  by  the  s}'mptoms  and  the  post-mortem 
appearances. 

Quantitative  determination. — This  is  effected  by  precipitating 
the  whole  of  the  ammonia  as  a  double  chloride  of  ammonium 
and  platinum;  and  proceeding  as  in  the  case  of  potassium  (ante, 
p.  181).  Every  100  parts  of  the  double  salt  represent  7.62  parts 
of  pure  ammonia. 

SECTION  II. 

POISONING  BY  THE  ALKALINE  AND  EAKTHT  SALTS. — NITRATE  OF  POTASSA. — 
BITARTRATE  OF  POTASSA. — SULPHATE  OF  POTASSA. — ALUM. — CHLORINATED 
POTASSA  AND  SODA. — SALTS  OF  BARYTA. 

NITRATE  OF  POTASSA  (Nitre.  Saltpetre).  —  This  well-known 
salt  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts;  and  also  in  medicine  in 
small  doses,  as  a  sedative  and  diuretic.  It  occurs  in  long 
six-sided  prismatic  crystals  (common  saltpetre);  and  in  white 
globular  masses  and  cakes,  made  by  fusion  (sal  prunelle).  Its 
taste  is  peculiar,  cooling  but  sharp;  it  is  very  soluble  in 
water.  It  deflagrates  when  thrown  upon  hot  coals,  and  yields 
nitrous  fumes  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  crude 
salt  of  commerce  contains  chloride  of  sodium  :  hence,  when 
acted  upon  by  sulphuric  acid,  it  may  give  off  chlorine,  or 
hydrochloric  acid  gas. 

This  salt  constitutes  an  exception  to  the  general  effect  of 
neutralization  on  the  local  irritants.  Both  its  acid  and  its 
alkali  are  simple,  though  powerful,  irritants;  yet  the  com- 
pound salt,  although  inferior,  is  still  energetic.  But  its 
action  is  something  more  than  merely  irritant,  since  experi- 
ence shows  that  it  often  causes  symptoms  which  indicate  its 
influence  upon  the  nervous  centres. 

In  small  doses,  as  five  to  ten  grains,  it  is  a  valuable  medi- 
cine. Its  poisonous  effects  appear  to  be  owing  to  its  degree 
of  concentration,  rather  than  to  the  mere  quantity  of  the  salt. 
Thus,  it  has  often  been  administered  medicinally  in  doses  of 
half  an  ounce  to  two  ounces  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  diffused 
in  large  quantities  of  barley-water,  or  other  diluent,  without 
any  injurious  effect.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that 
a  like  quantity  taken  atone  dose,  and  in  a  concentrated  form, 
would  cause  most  serious,  and  even  fatal,  results. 


POISONING    BY   NITRATE    OF    POTASSA.  185 

Symptoms.  —  The  experiments  of  Orfila  and  others  upon 
animals  show  that  this  salt  has  a  twofold  action, — the  one 
irritating,  and  the  other  narcotic.  Death  was  preceded  by 
giddiness,  slight  convulsions,  dilated  pupil,  insensibility,  and 
paralysis.  In  man,  the  usual  symptoms  are  vomiting,  some- 
times of  blood,  violent  burning  pain  in  the  throat  and  stom- 
ach, followed  by  coldness  of  skin,  weak  and  frequent  pulse, 
bloody  stools,  collapse,  and  death.  Nervous  symptoms,  such 
as  tremors,  spasms,  loss  of  speech  and  sensation,  and  hallu- 
cinations, are  sometimes  exhibited.  Occasionally,  when  very 
large  doses  have  been  taken,  the  local  symptoms  have  been 
comparatively  slight,  whilst  the  impression  on  the  nervous 
centres  is  more  decided. 

Fatal  dose. — In  a  case  recorded  by  Dr.  Beck,  a  dose  of  salt- 
petre, taken  in  mistake  for  Glauber's  salt,  proved  fatal  to  an 
aged  man  in  half  an  hour.  Ortila  quotes  the  case  of  a  lady 
who  swallowed  an  ounce  of  nitre  by  mistake  for  other  salts. 
In  a  quarter  of  an  hour  she  suffered  from  nausea,  vomiting, 
and  purging;  and  the  muscles  of  the  face  were  convulsed. 
The  pulse  was  weak,  the  respiration  feeble,  and  the  limbs 
cold.  There  was  a  sense  of  burning  and  severe  pain  in 
the  stomach.  She  died  in  three  hours  after  taking  the  dose. 
On  inspection,  the  stomach  was  found  highly  inflamed,  and 
the  mucous  membrane  detached  in  various  parts.  Near  the 
pylorus,  the  inflammation  was  of  a  gangrenous  character. 
(Toxicologie,  i.  p.  355.)  Dr.  Taylor  mentions  a  case  of  a  man 
who  took  nearly  an  ounce  aud  a  half  of  nitre  by  mistake  for 
salts.  Severe  pain  of  the  abdomen,  with  vomiting,  followed, 
but  no  purging.  He  died  in  two  hours  after  taking  the  dose. 
The  post-mortem  examination  revealed  a  condition  of  the 
stomach  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  case.  (On  Poisons,  p. 
306.)  In  other  instances,  the  symptoms  were  those  of  the 
most  violent  cholera,  but  were  more  protracted  than  in  the 
cases  above  mentioned. 

The  largest  dose  recorded  to  have  been  taken  is  mentioned 
in  Wharton  aud  Stille's  Medical  Jurisprudence,  1873,  ii.  p. 
334.  A  German  by  mistake  swallowed  three  ounces  and  a  half 
of  the  salt.  He  complained  of  but  slight  pain  or  sense  of  heat 
in  the  stomach,  and  was  purged  three  times  within  three  or  four 


186  MA>7UAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

hours.  About  five  hours  after  taking  the  nitre,  he  suddenly 
fell  out  of  his  chair,  and  expired.  There  was  no  post-mortem 
examination.  In  this  case  there  was  a  remarkable  absence 
of  the  usual  signs  of  local  irritation  and  inflammation.  The 
poison  seems  to  have  acted  after  the  manner  of  a  shock,  or, 
as  has  been  suggested,  by  destroying  the  vitality  of  the  blood. 
The  rigor  mortis  was  very  imperfect,  and  the  countenance 
and  lips  retained  their  life-like  appearance,  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  for  three  days  after  death. 

Numerous  instances  have  occurred  of  recovery  after  taking 
large  doses  of  saltpetre,  varying  from  half  an  ounce  to  two 
ounces.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  sufferings  of  the  patient 
were  very  severe,  and  lasted  for  several  months. 

Post-mortem,  appearances. — The  eft'ects  of  this  substance  in 
a  poisonous  dose  are  observed  chiefly  in  the  stomach,  which 
is  usually  found  much  inflamed,  mottled  with  dark-colored 
patches,  and  the  mucous  membrane  partially  detached.  The 
small  intestines  have  exhibited  a  similar  appearance.  The 
contents  of  the  stomach  are  sometimes  deeply  tinged  with 
blood.  Perforation  has  been  observed  in  one  instance. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  chemical  antidote.  Free  vomiting 
should  be  encouraged,  and  mucilaginous  drinks  copiously 
taken.  The  symptoms  of  depression  should  be  met  with  the 
use  of  stimulants,  opium,  camphor,  etc.;  antiphlogistics  may 
be  required  to  combat  the  inflammatory  symptoms. 

Chemical  analysis. — (See  NITRIC  ACID,  ante,  p.  152.)  The 
researches  of  VVohler  prove  that  nitre  is  absorbed  into  the 
circulation,  and  eliminated  by  the  urine,  in  which  secretion  it 
has  been  detected  by  chemical  reagents.  Orfila  states  that  he 
detected  it  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  urine  of  animals 
poisoned  by  it.  (Ann.  d'Hyg.,  1842,  ii.  p.  434.) 

BITARTRATE  OP  POTASSA  (Cream  of  Tartar}. — This  salt,  al- 
though not  generally  considered  poisonous,  has  destroyed 
life  in  at  least  one  instance,  where  an  adult  male  took  about 
two  ounces,  and  died  in  forty-eight  hours,  with  symptoms 
and  post-mortem  appearances  much  resembling  those  caused 
by  nitrate  of  potassa. 

It  is  usually  found  in  the  shops  as  a  white  powder:  it  lias 
an  agreeable  acid  taste,  and  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water. 


POISONING   BY   SULPHATE    OF    POTASSA.  187 

"When  heated  on  platinum-foil,  it  is  converted  into  carbon  and 
carbonate  of  potassa :  the  latter  is  recognized  by  its  effer- 
vescing with  acids.  When  mixed  with  organic  liquids,  owing 
to  its  sparing  solubility,  it  is  generally  found  as  a  sediment. 

The  treatment  is  similar  to  that  recommended  for  poisoning 
by  nitrate  of  potash.  A  dilute  solution  of  the  bicarbonate 
of  potassa  may  be  advantageously  given,  as  it  reduces  the 
bitartrate  to  the  condition  of  the  neutral  tartrate — a  harmless 
salt. 

SULPHATE  OF  POTASSA. — This  salt,  like  the  two  former 
ones,  has  given  rise  to  violent  and  fatal  symptoms,  when 
taken  in  large  doses.  Ten  drachms  given  in  divided  doses 
proved  fatal  to  a  French  lady,  within  a  week  of  her  confine- 
ment, in  two  hours,  with  the  symptoms  and  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances of  an  irritant  poison.  It  has  occasionally  been 
used  in  Europe,  particularly  in  France,  as  an  abortive;  and 
has  proved  fatal  in  this  way.  The  fatal  dose  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  from  one  to  two  ounces. 

Sulphate  of  potash  has  been  found  to  be  occasionally  con- 
taminated with  arseniate  of  potash.  M.  Bussy  found  this 
poison  in  a  sample  supplied  by  a  wholesale  house  of  Paris 
(Pharm.  Jour'.,  May,  1872,  p.  954).  This  impurity  might  be 
derived  from  the  arsenical  sulphuric  acid,  in  its  manufacture. 
It  would  be  proper  to  test  for  arsenic  any  sample  of  the 
sulphate  which  causes  irritation.  Arsenic  may  thus  find  its 
way  into  all  medicines  in  which  sulphate  of  potash  is  used, 
e.g.  Dover's  powder. 

Chemical  analysis. — Sulphate  of  potassa  is  easily  recog- 
nized: it  is  in  the  form  of  hard  colorless  crystals,  soluble 
in  water.  Its  solution  exhibits,  with  the  appropriate  tests, 
the  presence  of  both  sulphuric  acid  and  potassa. 

As  Dr.  Taylor  justly  observes,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
most  simple  purgative  salts  may,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  when  given  in  very  large  doses,  destroy  life. 
Instances  have  already  been  cited  (ante,  p.  16)  where  both 
sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  salt)  and  chloride  of  sodium 
(common  salt)  caused  death,  and  gave  rise  to  a  suspicion  of 
poisoning. 

ALUM  (Sulphate  of  Alumina  and  Potassa},  in  large  doses,  occa- 


188  MANUAL    OF     TOXICOLOGY. 

sions  severe  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  causing 
violent  vomiting,  and  sometimes  purging.  Orfila  found  it  to 
prove  fatal  to  animals  to  which  he  had  given  it,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours  (Ann.  d'Hyg.,  1842,  ii.  p.  433).  No  authentic 
record  exists  of  death  in  the  human  subject,  resulting  from 
alum. 

The  proper  treatment  consists  in  promoting  the  evacuation 
of  the  stomach  by  warm  diluent  drinks,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  hydrate  of  magnesia. 

Chemical  analysis. — Alum  is  a  colorless  salt,  crystallizing  in 
octahedra,  and  soluble  in  water;  having  a  sourish,  astringent 
taste;  exposed  to  heat,  it  fuses  and  parts  with  its  water  of 
crystallization,  being  converted  into  dried  or  burnt  alum.  Its 
solution  will  indicate  sulphuric  acid  by  nitrate  of  baryta, 
potash  by  bichloride  of  platinum,  and  alumina  by  potash, 
which  precipitates  it  as  a  white  hydrate,  soluble  in  an  excess 
of  the  reagent. 

CHLORINATED  POTASSA  AND  SODA.  —  These  salts  are  im- 
properly named  chlorides  of  potassa  and  soda:  they  are 
hypochlorites.  They  are  frequently  known  under  the  name 
of  bleaching  salts,  or  powders,  and  are  much  used,  particularly 
in  France,  by  washerwomen  for  cleansing  clothes.  In  that 
country  they  are  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Veau  de 
Javellc. 

The  following  admirable  medico-legal  report,  by  MM. 
Tardieu  and  Roussin,  of  a  case  of  fatal  poisoning  by  chlo- 
rinated soda,  is  abridged  from  their  work,  Sur  V  Empoisonne- 
ment.  It  presents  a  very  satisfactory  description  of  its  effects 
and  of  the  proper  method  to  be  pursued  for  the  detection  of 
this  poison  : 

"  A  child  aged  six  months  had  been  failing  in  health  for 
some  days,  without  any  known  cause.  Its  mother  had  no- 
ticed on  several  occasions  that  its  lips  were  strangely  white 
and  inflamed,  and  that  its  breath  had  a  disagreeable  odor, 
smelling  of  the  eau  de  Javelle.  Coming  home  one  day  un- 
expectedly, she  surprised  her  husband  in  the  act  of  forcibly 
giving  the  child  something  from  a  bottle.  She  seized  the 
child,  and  likewise  the  bottle,  and  ran  off  to  give  the  alarm. 
In  a  few  days  after,  the  infant  died.  On  examination,  the 


POISONING    BY   CHLORINATED    SODA.  189 

alimentary  canal  was  found  inflamed,  though  not  violently  so. 
Certain  experts  employed  to  clear  up  the  case  were  not  able 
to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  conclusion,  and  the  matter  was 
finally  submitted  by  the  authorities  to  us,  with  instructions 
to  make  a  full  examination,  and  report  upon  the  following 
points  :  (1)  Is  not  the  eau  de  Javelle,  even  when  diluted  and 
given  iu  divided  doses,  a  poisonous  substance,  especially  to 
a  child  six  or  seven  months  old?  (2)  Might  not  the  gradual 
absorption  of  this  liquid  cause  death,  without  leaving  direct 
traces  of  the  poison  ?  (3)  Are  not  the  peculiar  odor  of  this 
liquid  exhaled  by  the  breath,  the  persistent  irritation  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  the  vomiting,  and  the  failing  health,  certain 
symptoms  of  poisoning  by  this  liquid? 

"The  mouth-piece  of  the  vial,  submitted  for  examination, 
was  composed  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead.  It  presented  on  the 
interior  a  whitish  spot,  slightly  adherent,  which  on  analysis 
proved  to  consist  of  the  chloride  and  carbonate  of  lead.  A 
glass  bottle,  containing  a  liquid  of  a  light  pinkish  color,  gave 
out  the  distinct  odor  of  hypochlorous  acid  and  chlorine :  the 
analysis  of  this  liquid  showed  it  to  be  composed  exclusively 
of  hypochlorite  of  soda.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  previous 
expert,  that  the  liquid  swallowed  was  hypochlorite  of  potassa. 

"The  different  organs  and  liquids  mentioned  below,  with 
the  exception  of  the  bottle,  gave  out  no  odor  of  either  hypo- 
chlorous  acid  or  chlorine :  and  this  could  not  be  other- 
wise, for  reasons  given  farther  on.  It  should  also  be  re- 
membered  that  the  method  used  to  preserve  the  organs,  by 
the  inconsiderate  use  of  alcohol,  was  calculated  to  destroy 
the  last  traces  of  any  hypochlorite  that  might  be  present. 
This  salt,  naturally  very  unstable,  is  instantly  decomposed, 
by  the  mere  contact  with  alcohol,  into  products  that  possess 
none  of  the  characteristic  properties  of  the  original. 

"  The  hypochlorites  of  potash  and  soda,  so  much  used  in 
the  arts,  contain  a  very  storehouse  of  gaseous  chlorine,  con- 
densed under  a  solid  or  liquid  form.  As  soon  as  these  hypo- 
chlorites come  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  or  with  an 
acid,  or  with  organic  matters,  chlorine  is  gradually  liberated ; 
and,  acting  according  to  its  natural  affinities,  it  combines 
with  hydrogen,  corrodes,  disinfects,  decolorizes,  etc.,  accord- 

13 


190  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ing  to  the  nature  of  the  substances  on  which  it  acts.  The 
uniform  and  speedy  result  of  this  reaction  is  the  complete 
destruction  of  the  hypochlorite,  and  the  production  simply 
of  an  inert  chloride. 

"  The  precise  bearing  of  the  above  on  a  medico-legal  case 
is,  that  after  poisoning  with  a  hypochlorite,  even  though  di- 
luted, and  although  the  examination  be  made  immediately 
after  death,  not  only  will  there  be  a  failure  to  detect  the 
poison,  but  it  will  be  impossible  to  recover  a  trace  of  free 
chlorine,  or  of  a  hypochlorite.  .  .  . 

"In  the  special  case  .before  us,  the  evidence  was  clear  that 
if  the  poisoning  was  occasioned  by  the  eau  de  Javelle,  it  must 
have  been  administered  in  small  doses  repeated,  since  the 
child  was  suffering  for  a  considerable  time,  and  died  two 
months  after  the  first  symptoms  were  manifested.  As  it  was 
also  certain  that  none  of  the  poison  could  have  been  taken 
within  six  days  of  death,  it  was  still  more  impossible,  either 
by  the  autopsy  or  by  the  chemical  examination,  to  recognize 
the  presence  of  either  chlorine  or  a  hypochlorite.  The  slight 
traces  of  the  toxic  agent  had  long  since  been  transformed,  and, 
to  a  great  extent,  had  been  eliminated  from  the  economy. 

"  As  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  these  hypochlorites  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  If  taken  in  their  concentrated  state,  they 
may  occasion  death  very  rapidly;  and  even  when  diluted, 
and  taken  in  small  but  repeated  doses,  their  deadly  action, 
although  retarded,  is  not  the  less  certain.  The  peculiar  and 
characteristic  odor  of  the  hypochlorites  may  easily  be  recog- 
nized in  the  breath  of  a  person  who  has  just  swallowed  a 
dose  of  the  compound :  this  affords  a  very  excellent  proof  of 
the  presence  of  the  poison. 

"  From  the  preceding  facts,  it  follows  that  the  chemical 
examination  for  a  hypochlorite,  several  days  after  death, 
can  yield  no  positive  result,  if  directed  to  the  detection  of 
free  chlorine  or  hypochlorous  acid.  For  a  solution  of  the 
problem  we  must  examine  the  new  products  resulting  from 
the  reaction  of  the  suspected  poison,  either  upon  the  organs 
of  the  body,  or  upon  matters  connected  with  the  deceased. 
In  this  connection,  we  derived  valuable  results  from  the  ex- 
amination of  the  urine  and  kidneys  of  the  deceased  child. 


POISONING    BY    CHLORINATED    SODA.  191 

"  The  urine  contained  a  notable  quantity  of  the  chloride  of 
sodium, — more  than  half  as  much  again  as  is  usually  found  in 
the  urine  of  children  of  that  age.  The  kidney  subjected  to 
complete  incineration  in  a  porcelain  crucible,  likewise  fur- 
nished an  abnormal  amount  of  chloride  of  sodium.  The  other 
organs,  and  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  contained  much 
smaller  quantities.  Without  wishing  to  draw  any  absolute 
conclusion  from  these  facts,  we  may  remark  that  the  admin- 
istration of  the  hypochlorite  of  soda  internally  would  have 
precisely  the  effect  of  causing  an  increase  of  chloride  of  so- 
dium in  the  kidneys  and  the  urine, — this  being  the  ultimate 
product  of  the  decomposition  of  the  hypochlorite. 

"  The  ordinary  alloys  of  lead  and  tin,  so  much  employed  in 
domestic  use,  are  not  sensibly  acted  upon  by  neutral  liquids, 
especially  by  milk.  It  is  quite  otherwise,  however,  when  they 
are  in  contact  with  the  hypochlorites,  even  if  dilute.  The 
first  effect  of  the  contact  would  be  the  formation  of  the  chlo- 
ride of  lead,  in  the  form  of  a  white  deposit.  This  is  precisely 
what  was  found  on  the  inside  of  the  mouth-piece  seized. 

"Finally,  the  former  experts  had  discovered  that  one  of 
the  little  child's  caps  was  stained  with  numerous  spots  of  a 
reddish-white  color,  in  the  part  corresponding  to  the  back  of 
the  head.  In  our  opinion,  the  formation  of  such  stains  on  a 
stuff'  of  black  woolen,  together  with  their  very  position,  has 
a  significance  that  deserves  the  closest  attention.  In  fact, 
black  stuff's  generally  resist  the  action  of  ordinary  liquids, 
and  are  deprived  of  their  color  only  by  very  powerful  agents, 
among  which  the  hypochlorites  of  commerce  occupy  the  very 
first  rank  as  decolorizing  agents.  Any  fabric  dyed  black,  if 
touched  with  a  solution  of  a  hypochlorite,  however  lightly, 
will  assume  a  reddish-brown  tint.  So,  also,  the  discovery 
of  these  stains,  especially  on  the  back  part  of  the  head,  may 
be  easily  accounted  for.  Supposing  the  poison  to  have  been 
given  to  the  child,  it  would  naturally  be  in  the  recumbent 
posture,  and  some  of  the  liquid  wrould  be  very  apt  to  flow 
(from  the  instinctive  regurgitation  and  movements  of  the 
child),  first  along  the  commissure  of  the  lips,  then  along 
the  ears,  until  it  would  finally  accumulate  at  the  back  of  the 
head,  precisely  on  the  borders  of  the  cap,  where  most  of  the 


192  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

stains  were  found.  One  of  the  former  experts  mentioned  a 
superficial  inflammation  of  the  cheek  and  the  left  ear,  for 
which  he  could  not  account.  This  latter  circumstance,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  former  facts,  is  not  without  peculiar 
significance." 

The  conclusion  arrived  at  was :  "  That  the  abnormal  pro- 
portion of  chloride  of  sodium  found  in  the  kidneys  and  urine 
of  the  deceased,  the  formation  of  the  chloride  of  lead  on  the 
metallic  mouth-piece,  the  presence  of  numerous  stains  of  a 
reddish-white  color  on  one  of  the  black  woolen  caps  of  the 
child,  the  superficial  inflammation  of  its  cheek  and  left  ear, 
the  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor  of  its  breath,  noticed 
on  various  occasions  by  its  mother,  and  the  discovery  of  a 
bottle  containing  hypochlorite  of  soda,  among  other  articles 
seized  by  the  officers  of  the  law,  constitute,  by  their  precise 
and  logical  connection,  a  series  of  facts  which  warrant  the 
conclusion  that  the  case  is  one  of  poisoning  by  hypochlorite 
of  soda. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  hypochlorite  of  either  soda  or 
potash,  even  when  diluted  with  water  and  administered  in 
small  doses,  is  of  a  poisonous  nature,  especially  in  the  case 
of  a  child  six  or  seven  months  old.  Moreover,  it  is  certain 
that  the  gradual  absorption  of  this  substance  under  the  con- 
ditions specified  might  determine  a  fatal  result,  without 
leaving  in  the  organs  any  material  traces  of  the  poison. 

"  The  peculiar  characteristic  odor  of  the  hypochlorites  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  indications  of  poisoning  by  this  sub- 
stance. The  continued  irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal,  the 
vomiting,  and  the  wasting  of  the  body  are  decided  symptoms 
of  poisoning  by  the  eau  de  Javelle." 

SALTS  OF  BARYTA. — The  chloride  and  carbonate  are  the  two 
most  poisonous  salts  of  baryta.  The  former  has  on  several 
occasions  been  taken  by  mistake  for  Epsom  salt,  and  some- 
times with  fatal  effect.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  fhe  irri- 
tants generally  (see  ante,  p.  135),  with  the  addition  of  violent 
nervous  symptoms,  sucli  as  cramps,  convulsions,  headache, 
excessive  debility,  dimness  of  sight  and  double  vision,  noises 
in  the  ears,  and  violent  palpitation  of  the  heart. 


IRRITANTS    HAVING    REMOTE    SPECIFIC    PROPERTIES.        193 

The  morbid  appearances  are  similar  to  those  produced  by 
the  alkalies  generally.  In  one  case,  in  which  death  took 
place  in  two  hours,  the  stomach  was  found  perforated  (Guy's 
Forensic  Medicine,  p.  417). 

Chemical  characters. — The  chloride  of  barium  occurs  in  ir- 
regular tabular  crystals,  soluble  in  water;  it  has  an  acrid  taste. 
In  solution,  it  is  precipitated  by  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  soluble 
sulphate,  as  the  white  sulphate  of  baryta,  insoluble  in  the 
strong  acids;  and  by  nitrate  of  silver,  as  the  white  chloride 
of  silver,  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  very  soluble  in  am- 
monia. 

Carbonate  of  baryta,  although  less  powerful  as  a  poison  than 
the  chloride,  has  destroyed  life  in  several  cases.  The  symp- 
toms are  similar  to  those  produced  by  the  chloride. 

It  is  a-  white,  insoluble  powder,  effervescing  with  acids  ; 
completely  soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  from  which  it 
crystallizes  out  by  evaporation  as  the  chloride,  which  may 
be  tested  as  before  mentioned. 

The  proper  treatment  for  poisoning  with  a  barytic  salt  is 
the  free  use  of  sulphate  of  soda  or  magnesia  as  an  antidote ; 
emetics,  or  the  stomach-pump;  diluents;  and  the  subsequent 
use  of  antiphlogistic  remedies. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

IRRITANTS    HAVING   REMOTE    SPECIFIC    PROPERTIES. 

THIS  subdivision  of  Irritant  Poisons  differs  from  the  Sim- 
ple Irritants,  in  adding  to  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  irritation 
and  inflammation  of  the  stoniach  and  bowels  common  to  the 
former,  certain  other  symptoms  which  indicate  an  impression 
upon  the  great  nervous  centres.  Several  of  the  alkaline  and 
earthy  salts,  already  described,  are  of  this  character,  and  might 
have  been,  very  properly,  considered  under  the  present  head; 
but  they  were  more  conveniently,  and  perhaps  more  natu- 
rally, discussed  in  connection  with  the  Alkalies. 


194  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

SECTION  I. 

POISONING   BY   PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus  is  one  of  the  most  universally  diffused  chem- 
ical constituents  of  the  animal  body:  there  is  not  an  organ, 
tissue,  or  fluid  in  which  it  is  not  found  in  a  state  of  com- 
bination. Its  presence  is  essential  to  the  performance  of 
their  normal  functions;  and  this  is  especially  true  in  relation 
to  the  great  nervous  centres,  of  which  it  constitutes  a  com- 
paratively large  proportional  part. 

Nevertheless,  in  \tafree  state,  phosphorus  is  a  most  violent 
poison  ;  and  although  it  is  not  often  employed  with  homi- 
cidal intent,  at  least  in  this  country  (as  its  odor,  taste,  and 
luminosity  would  be  very  apt  to  reveal  its  presence),  several 
instances  have  been  reported  in  England  where  such  attempts 
have  been  made,  but  which  were  happily  frustrated  through 
the  means  just  mentioned.  Cases  of  phosphorus-poisoning 
of  an  accidental  and  suicidal  character  have,  of  late  years, 
become  very  frequent,  especially  in  France,  where,  accord- 
ing to  Tardieu,  it  heads  the  list  of  all  the  poisons,  being 
far  more  frequently  used  in  that  country  than  even  arsenic. 
This  may  be  accounted  for  from  the  facility  with  which  the 

•/  v 

poison  may  be  procured,  in  the  shape  of  the  common  lucifer- 
matches,  and  vermin-paste,  both  of  which  contain  it  in  con- 
siderable quantity. 

Symptoms. — Although  phosphorus  is  a  violent  irritant  poi- 
son, yet,  as  a  rule,  its  symptoms  do  not  manifest  themselves 
for  some  hours  after  it  has  been  swallowed.  The  variation  in 
this  respect  may  depend  upon  the  state  in  which  the  poison 
is  taken.  When,  however,  they  once  appear,  they  are  apt  to 
proceed  rapidly  to  a  fatal  termination.  At  first  a  disagree- 
able, garlicky  taste  is  perceived,  which  is  peculiar  to  phos- 
phorus. An  alliaceous  odor  may  also  often  be  discovered  in 
the  breath.  There  is  an  acrid,  burning  sensation  in  the 
throat,  with  intense  thirst  and  nausea;  severe  pain  and  heat, 
with  tenderness  and  pricking  sensation  of  the  stomach;  fol- 
lowed by  distension  of  the  abdomen,  and  violent  vomiting, 
with  occasional  purging.  There  is  also  cold  perspiration,  with 


POISONING    BY    PHOSPHORUS. — FATAL    DOSE.  195 

great  anxiety,  and  small,  frequent,  and  irregular  pulse.  The 
matters  first  vomited  generally  exhale  an  alliaceous  odor,  and 
are  luminous  in  the  dark;  their  color  is  very  dark  green,  or 
like  coffee-grounds.  The  discharges  from  the  bowels  have 
also  been  observed  to  be  phosphorescent.  The  pupils  are 
usually  dilated,  and  insensible  to  light.  Sometimes  convul- 
sions precede  death  4  at  other  times  the  patient  dies  quietly, 
in  a  coma.  If  the  case  is  protracted  for  some  days,  jaundice 
is  apt  to  occur,  and  likewise  hemorrhage  from  the  stomach, 
nose,  and  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  urine  is  highly 
albuminous. 

Chronic  poisoning  by  phosphorus  is  accompanied  with  nau- 
seous eructations,  frequent  vomiting,  a  sense  of  heat  in  the 
stomach,  purging,  pains  in  the  joints,  wasting  of  the  body, 
fever,  derangement  of  the  stomach,  and  diarrhoaa,  under 
which  the  patient  slowly  sinks.  There  is  a  form  of  slow 
poisoning  produced  by  inhalation  of  phosporus- vapor,  to 
which  those  who  manufacture  lucifer-matches  are  exposed. 
This  is  a  very  insidious  and  fatal  form  of  phosphorus-poison- 
ing. It  generally  manifests  itself  first  in  the  jaw,  causing 
caries  of  the  teeth,  necrosis  of  the  bone,  and  abscesses. 
There  is  also  frequently  great  irritation  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  together  with  bronchitis  and  wasting  diarrhoea. 

Fatal  quantity. — The  quantity  required  to  destroy  life  is  very 
small.  Sir  R.  Christison  quotes  several  cases,  one  of  which 
proved  fatal  in  twelve  days,  after  taking  a  grain  and  a  half; 
and  another,  related  by  M.  Martin-Solon,  in  which  a  patient 
affected  with  4ead-palsy,  who  took  less  than  a  grain  of  phos- 
phorus in  the  form  of  an  emulsion,  was  attacked  with  burn- 
ing in  the  gullet  and  stomach,  vomiting,  tenderness  of  the 
abdomen,  general  coldness,  great  prostration,  clouded  intel- 
lect, and  death  in  a  little  'over  two  days.  A  child  two  years 
and  a  half  old  died  after  swallowing  the  phosphorus  on  eight 
friction-matches;  and  a  child  two  mouths  old  is  said  to  have 
died  from  the  effects  of  two  such  matches  (Husemann,  Jour, 
f.  Phar.,  ii.  169).  In  this  case,  the  quantity  was  less  than  one- 
fiftieth  of  a  grain.  Dr.  Taylor  mentions  the  case  of  a  lunatic 
who  died  from  swallowing  one-eighth  of  a  grain  (On  Poisons, 
p.  315). 


196  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  to  act  fatally  in  consequence 
of  its  conversion  into  phosphorous  acid  ;  but,  although  such 
a  change  may  partially  occur,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  it  is 
absorbed  unaltered  into  the  blood,  since  the  urine  voided 
during  life  has  been  observed  to  be  luminous.  Hence  it  is 
most  probably  a  blood-poison. 

Phosphorus  is  occasionally  used  in  medicine  in  minute 
doses — from  one-sixtieth  to  one-thirtieth  of  a  grain,  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  very  gradually  increased.  Even  in  these 
small  doses,  its  effects  are  uncertain,  and  it  sometimes  acts 
with  unexpected  severity. 

Fatal  period.  —  Phosphorus  cannot  be  classed  among  the 
rapidly-fatal  poisons.  It  usually  causes  death  in  from  one  to 
four  or  five  days;  but  there  is  great  diversit}'  in  this  respect. 
Prof.  Casper  quotes  a  case  of  a  young  lady  who  died  in  ttn  //v 
hours  after  swallowing  three  grains  of  phosphorus  in  the  form 
of  an  electuary  (Foren.  Med.,  ii.  p.  100).  Dr.  Taylor  men- 
tions a  case  reported  by  Dr.  Habershon,  which  is  said  to  have 
proved  fatal  in  half  an  hour:  this  is  the  shortest  period  re- 
corded. Sir  R.  Christison  and  other  authors  speak  of  the 
case  described  by  Dr.  Flachsland,  of  Carlsruhe,  that  of  a 
young  man,  who  took  an  unknown  quantity  of  phosphorus 
on  bread  and  butter,  at  the  recommendation  of  a  quack,  and 
in  whom  death  took  place  in  forty  hours,  after  intense  suffering 
and  continual  vomiting,  along  with  a  discharge,  by  the  use 
of  injections,  of  small  fragments  of  phosphorus,  which  were 
luminous  in  the  dark,  and  burnt  holes  in  the  bed-linen.  The 
majority  of  cases  of  acute  poisoning  survive  for  several  days. 
Cases  of  chronic  poisoning  may  last  for  several  months,  or 
even  years. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  chemical  antidote  to  this  poison. 
Free  emesis  should  be  encouraged,  and  albuminous  and 
mucilaginous  drinks,  holding  hydrate  of  magnesia  suspended, 
should  be  taken  largely.  The  use  of  oil  is  objectionable,  as 
this  is  a  solvent  for  phosphorus,  and  would  consequently  tend 
to  diffuse  it  in  the  stomach.  Of  late  years,  oil  of  turpentine  has 
been  recommended  as  a  good  antidote  (Wharton  and  Stille's 
Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  vol.  ii.  p.  349).  According  to  Dr.  S.  K. 
Percy  (Prize  Essay,  Trans.  Am.  Med.  Association,  1872),  who 


POISONING    BY    PHOSPHORUS. — MORBID    APPEARANCES.      197 

has  experimented  extensively  with  phosphorus  upon  dogs,  the 
pure  oil  of  turpentine  (hydrocarbon)  is  not  antidotal;  but  the 
old  oil,  which  contains  'oxygen,  if  administered  soon  after 
taking  the  poison,  and  before  the  latter  is  absorbed,  appears 
to  be  perfectly  so.  Dr.  Percy  found  the  most  reliable  antidote 
to  be  oxygenated  water  highly  charged  under  pressure,  gradu- 
ally introduced  into  the  stomach  by  means  of  an  elastic  tube. 
This  method,  together  with  inhalations  of  oxygen,  proved 
remarkably  successful  in  his  hands,  as  an  antidote.  He  also 
alludes  to  another  antidote,  proposed  by  MM.  Eulenberg  and 
Yohl, — animal  charcoal,  in  the  form  of  pills:  it  is  said  to  act 
antidotally  by  absorbing  the  free  phosphorus,  and  thus  neu- 
tralizing its  effects. 

Morbid  appearances. — According  to  Tardieu  (Sur  1'Empoi- 
sonnement,  p.  437),  who  has  given  special  attention  to  this 
subject,  the  lesions  produced  by  phosphorus  vary  according 
to  the  form  in  which  it  is  taken.  It  is  when  in  the  pure 
state,  or  simply  dissolved  in  oil,  that  it  most  frequently 
occasions  lesions  in  the  oesophagus  and  alimentary  canal. 
Fragments  of  phosphorus,  recognizable  by  their  odor  and 
phosphorescence,  may  be  discovered  adhering  to  the  mucous 
membrane,  even  in  the  large  intestines:  and  at  these  spots 
the  digestive  tube  is  liable  to  perforation  during  the  exam- 
ination. In  the  oesophagus,  stomach,  and  intestines,  ecchy- 
motic  or  gangrenous  spots  are  scattered  about.  The  mesen- 
teric  glands  are  engorged,  and  often  softened  and  friable. 

When  the  poisoning  has  been  caused  by  phosphorus-paste, 
or  by  the  heads  of  matches,  it  may  happen  that  no  apprecia- 
ble lesion  is  discoverable  either  in  the  alimentary  canal  or 
elsewhere;  but  generally,  even  in  the  absence  of  redness, 
ulceration,  or  any  other  evidence  of  inflammation,  many 
hemorrhagic  points  can  be  determined.  On  opening  the 
abdomen,  the  mesentery  and  visceral  peritoneum  appear 
studded  with  black  ecchymotic  patches  or  points,  resembling 
the  spots  of  purpura.  The  pleural  and  pericardial  centres 
contain  more  or  less  of  bloody  serum.  Irregular  ecchymotic 
patches  are  scattered  under  the  pleura,  the  pericardium,  and 
even  under  the  endocardium.  The  heart  is  soft,  discol- 
ored, empty,  or  contains  fluid  blood ;  the  blood  itself  is  very 


198  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

dark,  fluid,  and  syrup}1,  but  without  notable  change  in  its 
corpuscles.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy  (loc.  cit.),  however, 
prove  that  the  blood-corpuscles  undergo  a  speedy  and  com- 
plete disintegration,  which  seems  to  be  the  true  cause  of  the 
numerous  ecchymosed  spots  seen  upon  the  different  organs. 
Bloody  infiltrations  occur  sometimes  in  the  thickness  of  the 
viscera,  of  the  muscles,  and  of  the  cellular  tissue.  The 
bladder  contains  bloody  urine,  and  often  presents  submucous 
ecchymoses. 

The  exterior  of  the  body  often  exhibits  an  icterode  hue. 
As  regards  the  cadaveric  rigidity,  or  the  tendency  to  putre- 
faction, there  is  nothing  special  to  notice.  It  may  happen 
that  the  red  or  blue  coloring-material  used  on  the  tops  of  the 
matches  (together  with  small  fragments  of  the  wood)  will 
be  found  sticking  to  the  inside  of  the  digestive  canal,  even 
a  considerable  time  after  death.  M.  Dionis  (d'Auxerre)  was 
able  to  detect  the  presence  of  vermilion  in  the  remains  of 
a  man  who  was  poisoned  by  soup  containing  match-heads, 
eighteen  months  after  burial.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
gastrointestinal  mucous  membrane  is  hemorrhagic  rather 
than  inflammatory, — ecchymoses  being  scattered  over  the 
pyloric  region  of  the  stomach,  the  duodenum,  and  the  large 
intestine;  but  without  either  ulceration  or  perforation.  The 
contents  of  the  intestines  are  liquid  and  bloody. 

There  is  one  particular  pathological  condition  of  the 
tissues,  revealed  by  the  microscope,  that  constitutes  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  evidence  of  poisoning  by  phosphorus: 
this  is  a  fatty  degeneratiou^of  the  liver,  kidneys,  glands  of  the 
stomach,  the  heart,  and  the  muscles  generally.  (See  on  this 
subject  an  inaugural  thesis  by  M.  Fabre  on  "  The  Fatty  De- 
generation in  Acute  Poisoning  by  Phosphorus,"  Paris,  1864; 
also  a  paper  by  Dr.  Moore,  in  "  Dublin  Med.  Press,"  Novem- 
ber 15,  1865).  M.  Tardieu  (loc.  cit,  p.  440)  gives  an  accurate 
and  detailed  description  of  the  pathological  changes  in  the 
different  organs,  caused  by  this  fatty  degeneration  ;  he  like- 
wise gives  an  excellent  representation,  by  magnified  draw- 
ings, of  the  microscopic  appearances  mentioned  above. 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  these  fatty  de- 
generations are  not  peculiar  to  phosphorus-poisoning,  since 


POISONING    BY    PHOSPHORUS. — MORBID    APPEARANCES.      199 

they  occur  in  poisoning  by  many  other  agents,  as  ammonia, 
alcohol,  arsenic,  antimony,  the  cyanides,  and  the  sulpho- 
cyanides;  and  likewise  as  the  result  of  certain  diseases, 
acute  and  chronic.  But  these  changes  acquire  particular 
importance  from  being  associated  with  some  of  the  most 
notable  symptoms  of  phosphorus-poisoning,  such  as  the 
jaundice,  the  muscular  pains  and  weakness,  and  the  albu- 
minous condition  of  the  urine. 

The  contents  of  the  stomach,  in  some  instances,  have 
evolved  the  odor  and  white  fumes  of  phosphorus.  In  the 
case  of  Prof.  Casper  before  mentioned,  forty-eight  hours 
after  death  luminous  vapors  were  observed  to  issue  from 
the  vagina,  and  a  grayish-white  vapor,  strongly  smelling  of 
phosphorus,  continuously  streamed  from  the  anus !  A  dis- 
tinct odor  of  phosphorus  also  came  from  the  mouth,  but 
without  visible  vapor.  No  smell  or  vapor  of  phosphorus 
could  be  detected  on  opening  the  stomach ;  nor  was  any 
part  of  its  lining  membrane  either  softened  or  corroded;  and 
no  particles  of  phosphorus  could  be  detected  even  with  the 
aid  of  a  magnifying-glass.  It  contained  about  half  a  pint 
of  a  bloody  fluid,  mingled  with  coagulated  milk.  The  intes- 
tines were  pale,  and  presented  nothing  abnormal.  The  blood 
was  dirty  red,  and  of  a  syrupy  consistence;  and  the  blood- 
corpuscles  were  transparent  and  deprived  of  their  coloring- 
matter.  The  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys  were  congested ; 
the  lungs  contained  but  little  blood;  and  the  heart  was  al- 
most completely  empty ;  but  the  large  blood-vessels  contained 
much  blood.  The  bladder  was  of  a  livid  color,  and  con- 
tained about  a  tablespoonful  of  milky  urine.  The  brain  and 
likewise  its  membranes  were  moderately  congested. 

In  Dr.  Flachsland's  case,  referred  to  on  page  196,  which 
proved  fatal  in  forty-eight  hours,  watery  blood  flowed  in 
large  quantity  from  the  nostrils,  and  also  from  incisions  made 
into  the  skin  and  muscles  of  the  abdomen;  the  stomach  and 
bowels  externally  were  inflamed ;  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach  presented  a  gangrenous  inflammation,  which 
extended  into  the  duodenum  ;  the  large  intestines  were  con- 
tracted to  the  size  of  the  little  finger.  The  mesenteric  glands 
were  hardened  ;  and  the  spleen  and  kidneys  inflamed. 


200  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

In  other  cases,  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  lias 
been  found  of  a  crimson  color,  softened  in  many  places,  and 
easily  detached,  with  ulcerations  in  different  portions  of 
the  organ;  the  small  intestines  violently  inflamed,  together 
with  the  rectum.  On  the  other  hand,  in  several  instances, 
where  very  large  doses  were  taken,  the  post-mortem  exami- 
nation failed  to  reveal  the  slightest  lesion  of  the  stomach, 
or  indeed  of  any  of  the  organs,  visible  to  the  naked  eye: 
doubtless,  however,  if  the  microscope  had  been  employed, 
the  fatty  degeneration  of  the  different  tissues  above  de- 
scribed, would  have  been  detected. 

Diagnosis. — During  life,  the  symptoms  of  a  case  of  acute 
phosphorus-poisoning  are  commonly  sufficiently  distinct  to 
admit  of  an  easy  recognition.  If  in  addition  to  the  gastro-en- 
teric  symptoms  already  detailed  (ante,  p.  194),  a  phosphores- 
cent vapor  is  perceived  to  issue  from  the  mouth,  accompanied 
with  a  garlicky  odor;  and  if,  further,  a  similar  phospho- 
rescence is  observed  in  the  discharges  from  the  stomach 
and  bowels  and  the  urinary  bladder,  there  can  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  arriving  at  a  positive  conclusion.  In  chronic  cases 
accompanied  by  jaundice,  it  is  possible  that  the  case  might 
be  confounded  with  the  disease  known  as  grave  or  pernicious 
icterus,  acute  yellow  atrophy  of  the  liver,  or  general  spontaneous 
steatosis.  M.  Tardieu  (loc.  cit.,  p.  444)  is  of  the  opinion  that 
many  reputed  cases  of  this  disease  are  in  reality  only  con- 
cealed cases  of  poisoning  by  phosphorus.  This,  moreover, 
appears  to  be  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  the  German 
authorities,  notwithstanding  the  contrary  idea  of  Wunderlich. 
Tardieu  cites  the  following  points  of  distinction  between  the 
two  disorders.  As  a  general  rule,  the  primary  symptoms  of 
phosphorus-poisoning  are  less  severe  than  those  of  spontane- 
ous icterus;  the  sensation  of  heat  in  the  throat,  and  eructa- 
tions, and  vomiting  of  matters  of  a  garlicky  odor  and  which 
are  luminous  in  the  dark,  would  indicate  the  former.  The 
yellow  discoloration  of  the  skin  shows  itself  at  a  later  period 
in  the  poisoning  than  in  the  disease :  it  is  not  so  intense,  nor 
is  it  accompanied  with  the  injection  of  the  eyes,  or  with 
the  fever,  which  are  never  wanting  in  acute  icterus.  More- 
over, the  disease  lacks  the  intermissions  and  the  periods  of 


POISONING   BY   PHOSPHORUS. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.     *  201 

prolonged    sedation   which  are    observed    in    cases   of   poi- 
soning. 

As  regards  the  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  and  other 
organs,  it  would  seem,  from  well-instituted  experiments,  that 
this  pathological  change  is  brought  about  more  speedily  in 
phosphorus-poisoning.  The  experiments  of  MM.  Fritz,  Ran- 
vier,  and  Verliac  on  animals  that  were  made  to  take  phos- 
phorus, proved  that  a  steatosis  of  the  liver  had  been  pro- 
duced in  a  few  days ;  and  Tardieu  speaks  of  having  himself 
witnessed  this  fatty  change  in  the  heart,  liver,  kidneys, 
glands  of  the  stomach,  and  the  muscles  generally,  in  forty- 
eight  hours  after  the  ingestion  of  this  poison  (loc.  cit.,  p.  445). 

Chemical  analysis.  —  Phosphorus  is  a  white,  transparent 
solid,  of  the  appearance  and  consistency  of  wax  ;  sp.  gr.  1.83. 
It  fuses  at  the  temperature  of  110°  F. ;  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture it  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  brilliant  white  light,  becom- 
ing converted  into  the  white  fumes  of  anhydrous  phosphoric 
acid.  At  ordinary  temperatures,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
gives  oif  white  fumes  of  phosphorous  acid,  which  are  faintly 
luminous  in  the  dark.  The  smell  and  taste  of  phosphorus 
resemble  those  of  garlic ;  by  which  means  it  may  easily  be 
recognized  when  mixed  with  food  or  drinks.  The  fuming  of 
phosphorus  in  the  air,  as  also  its  luminosity,  is  completely 
prevented  by  the  presence  of  the  vapor  of  alcohol,  ether,  oil 
of  turpentine,  chloroform,  and  ammonia,  even  in  minute 
quantities. 

Although  insoluble  in  water,  phosphorus  may  impart 
poisonous  properties  to  this  liquid  from  the  production  of 
phosphorous  acid.  It  is  tolerably  soluble  (especially  by  the 
aid  of  heat)  in  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils;  also  in  ether,  chlo- 
roform, and  naphtha;  but  its  best  solvent  is  the  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  It  is  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid;  hot  nitric  acid 
converts  it  into  phosphoric  acid. 

Phosphorus  is  always  preserved  under  water,  to  prevent 
oxidizemeut:  after  exposure  thus  for  some  time  to  the  light, 
it  loses  its  transluceney,  and  becomes  covered  with  a  whitish 
film,  which  is  believed  by  Rose  to  be  merely  another  mo- 
lecular form  of  the  substance. 

Phosphorus  in  the  free  state  is  so  readily  identified  by  its 


202  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

physical  properties — especially  by  its  odor,  luminosity,  and 
incandescence — that  chemical  proofs  need  hardly  be  re- 
quired. These,  however,  are  readily  furnished.  If  a  minute 
portion  of  free  phosphorus  is  put  into  a  flask  containing  the 
materials  for  generating  hydrogen,  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gas 
is  evolved,  which  is  luminous  in  the  dark,  and  is  sometimes 
spontaneously  inflammable.  If  this  gas  be  ignited  at  the 
extremity  of  a  drawn-out  tube,  it  will  burn  with  a  greenish- 
blue  flame.  A  paper  moistened  with  nitrate  of  silver  exposed 
to  the  unignited  gas  is  immediately  blackened.  When  the 
gas  is  made  to  pass  through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
the  latter  is  blackened  from  the  production  of  metallic  silver: 
phosphoric  acid  is  also  formed  in  the  solution,  and  can  be 
detected  on  filtration,  by  the  appropriate  reagents.  When 
conducted  into  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  the  gas  pro- 
duces a  yellowish  precipitate. 

The  methods  of  Mitscherlich  and  Lipowitz,  which  are  pecu- 
liarly appropriate  to  the  detection  of  the  poison  in  organic 
mixtures,  will  be  described  in  the  succeeding  paragraph. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures,  and  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 
— Very  often  a  strong  suspicion,  if  not  the  certainty,  of  the 
presence  of  phosphorus  in  such  mixtures  is  produced  by  the 
whitish  fumes  exhaled,  which  have  a  garlicky  smell,  and  are 
luminous  in  the  dark.  If  the  mixture  to  be  examined  is 
ammoniacal  from  putrefaction,  it  must  first  be  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  before  it  is  examined  for  its  luminosity,  since 
the  presence  of  free  ammonia  prevents  this  display.  It  is 
quite  possible,  however,  that  the  peculiar  odor  may  be  dis- 
guised, or  overpowered,  by  others  of  a  more  powerful  kind. 
All  organic  mixtures  should  be  carefully  searched  for  parti- 
cles of  the  poison,  which,  if  found,  may  be  washed  in  water 
and  alcohol,  and  preserved  for  future  examination.  Or,  the 
mass  may  be  spread  out  over  a  metallic  plate,  and  warmed; 
on  stirring  it,  the  presence  of  phosphorus  will  be  made  evi- 
dent by  frequent  bright  scintillations.  Or,  after  collecting 
the  suspected  particles  and  washing  them,  they  may  be  gently 
heated  in  a  glass  tube  or  flask  with  water,  when  they  will 
melt  and  collect  into  a  globule,  which  will  solidify  on  cool- 
ing, and  may  easily  be  identified. 


POISONING   BY   PHOSPHORUS. — PROCESS    OF    MITSCHERLICH.  203 

Owing  to  its  great  solubility  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  phos- 
phorus may  be  separated  from  many  organic  matters  by 
digestion  with  this  liquid.  In  this  way  it  can  be  procured 
from  flour  and  phosphorus-paste,  or  from  the  residue  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomach,  after  washing  and  decantation.  On 
the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  the  sulphide,  decanted  from 
the  organic  liquid  or  solid,  the  phosphorus  may  be  procured 
in  small  globules  or  beads,  which  will  ignite  on  being  touched 
with  a  hot  wire,  and  burn  Avith  the  characteristic  bright 
flame. 

If,  however,  the  phosphorus  be  in  a  state  of  solution,  or  be 
present  in  too  small  a  quantity  to  be  dissolved  out  by  sul- 
phide of  carbon,  its  presence  may  be  indicated  by  one  of  the 
following  methods: 

Process  of  Mitscherlich. — This  is  the  most  delicate  method 
yet  devised  for  the  detection  of  phosphorus.  It  consists  es- 
sentially in  distilling  the  suspected  mixture,  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  condensing  the  vapors  in  a  glass  tube 
surrounded  by  a  condenser  (like  a  Liebig's  condenser):  the 
vapor  of  phosphorus  thus  condensed  produces  a  continuous 
luminosity,  easily  visible  in  the  dark.  The  suspected  mate- 
rial, diluted  with  water,  if  necessary,  and  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  is  put  into  a  glass  flask,  which  is  connected 
by  means  of  a  bent  glass  tube  with  another  tube  that  passes 
into  the  glass  condenser.  The  latter  is  kept  surrounded  with 
cold  water,  in  the  usual  manner.  On  gently  heating  the  flask, 
a  very  distinct  and  continuous  luminosity,  usually  some  inches 
in  length,  is  observed,  in  the  dark,  to  play  up  and  down  in 
the  cooled  portion  of  the  delivery-tube.  The  phosphorus 
thus  distilled  collects  with  the  aqueous  vapor  in  the  receiver, 
to  which  it  imparts  the  usual  alliaceous  odor.  A.  portion  of 
it  may  even  collect  in  the  receiver  in  the  form  of  small  glob- 
ules or  beads,  which  may  be  easily  recognized. 

So  delicate  is  this  process  by  distillation  that,  according  to 
Dr.  Taylor,  in  an  experiment  with  the  head  of  one  lucifer- 
match,  the  luminosity  appeared  for  half  an  hour  in  the  con- 
densing-tube.  The  most  absolute  darkness  is  required  for  the 
success  of  this  experiment.  Prof.  Wormley  states  (Micro- 
Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  202)  that  he  distilled  the  fiftieth  part  of  a 


204  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

grain  of  phosphorus  along  with  two  thousand  grains  of  water 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid.  A  phosphorescent  light  ap- 
peared in  the  cooled  tube,  several  inches  in  length,  and  con- 
tinued for  thirty-four  minutes.  The  distillate  had  a  strong 
alliaceous  odor,  and  furnished  evidence  of  the  presence  of 
phosphorous  acid,  although  it  contained  no  globules.  The 
amount  of  phosphorus  that  passed  through  the  tube  per  second 
must  have  been  something  less  than  the  one-hundred-thou- 
sandth of  a  grain :  yet  this  gave  a  luminosity  many  times 
greater  than  would  have  sufficed  to  recognize  its  presence 
with  absolute  certainty.  We  have  ourselves  verified  this 
experiment  with  a  granule  containing  one-sixtieth  of  a  grain. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  presence  of  alcohol,  chlo- 
roform, etc.  (substances  in  which  the  viscera  of  a  body  may 
have  been  preserved),  may  entirely  prevent  the  luminosity  in 
the  above  experiment.  But  as  the  more  volatile  bodies  are 
gradually  dissipated  by  the  heat,  their  interference  ceases,  and 
the  luminosity  will  become  evident. 

The  presence  of  phosphorus  in  the  distillate  (in  the  form 
of  phosphorous  acid)  is  best  shown  by  first  treating  the 
filtered  liquid  with  a  little  nitric  acid,  which  converts  it 
into  phosphoric  acid ;  then  concentrating,  and  applying  the 
appropriate  tests  (see  post}.  This  examination  of  the  dis- 
tillate will  be  unnecessary  if  globules  of  phosphorus  have 
been  detected  in  the  receiver.  On  the  other  hand,  if  no 
globules  or  luminosity  have  been  observed,  the  discovery 
of  a  small  quantity  of  the  oxides  of  phosphorus  in  the  dis- 
tillate is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  supposition  of  poison, 
since  these  might  have  been  carried  over  mechanically.  It 
is  to  be  remembered  that  it  is  only/ree  phosphorus  that  gives 
out  the  luminosity  by  the  above  process.  The  distillation 
of  the  blood,  brain,  or  other  protein-compounds  of  animals 
(which  contain  it  in  the  state  of  combination),  along  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  entirely  fails  to  produce  it. 

Method  of  Lipowitz. — This  consists  in  boiling  the  suspected 
liquid,  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  with  frag- 
ments of  sulphur,  in  a  retort  with  a  long  neck,  or  one  which 
may  be  connected  with  a  cooled  glass  tube  (as  in  the  method 
of  Mitscherlich),  the  experiment  being  conducted  in  the 


POISONING   BY   PHOSPHORUS. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.       205 

dark.  The  sulphur  has  the  property  of  abstracting  the 
phosphorus  from  even  complex  mixtures,  and  combining 
with  it.  The  boiling  is  continued  for  about  half  an  hour, 
after  which  the  pieces  of  sulphur  are  withdrawn  and  washed 
with  water.  They  will  now  emit  the  peculiar  odor  of  phos- 
phorus, and  be  luminous  in  the  dark.  On  gently  heating 
them  with  nitric  acid,  they  yield  a  solution  containing  phos- 
phoric acid,  together  with  sulphuric  acid.  On  evaporating 
this  to  a  small  volume,  diluting  and  filtering,  the  presence  of 
phosphoric  acid  may  be  recognized  by  the  usual  tests. 

As  the  distillation  proceeds,  the  peculiar  luminosity  will 
usually  be  perceived  in  the  condenser;  and  the  distillate  will 
also  reveal  the  presence  of  the  oxides  of  phosphorus.  If, 
however,  the  amount  of  phosphorus  present  in  the  original 
mixture  was  very  minute,  the  whole  of  it  may  be  retained 
by  the  sulphur. 

The  hydrogen  method. — This  process  depends  upon  the 
property  possessed  by  free  phosphorus  and  its  lower  oxides, 
of  uniting  with  nascent  hydrogen  to  form  phosphuretted 
hydrogen,  a  gas  easily  recognized  by  its  peculiar  properties. 
The  suspected  material,  properly  prepared,  should  be  intro- 
duced into  the  flask  containing  the  materials  for  generating 
hydrogen ;  the  purity  of  the  latter  gas  is  first  proved,  before 
the  phosphorus  mixture  is  introduced.  The  resulting  phos- 
phuretted hydrogen  is  made  to  pass  over  hydrate  of  potassa 
or  lime,  in  order  to  remove  any  sulphuretted  hydrogen  that 
might  be  present ;  it  is  then  ignited  as  it  escapes  from  the 
drawn-out  end  of  the  delivery-tube,  when  it  will  burn  with 
a  characteristic  greenish  flame,  which  disappears  when  the 
tube  becomes  heated.  If  a  piece  of  cold  porcelain  be  de- 
pressed upon  the  flarne,  the  latter  burns  with  an  emerald- 
green  color  at  the  point  of  contact,  until  the  porcelain  be- 
comes heated.  Moreover,  the  evolved  gas  has  a  peculiar 
odor,  and  is  luminous  in  the  dark;  it  likewise  yields  a  black 
precipitate  with  the  nitrate  of  silver.  Fresenius  states  that  by 
this  method  the  presence  of  phosphorus  can  be  recognized, 
even  when  in  very  small  quantity  and  mixed  with  putrid 
animal  matters;  and  also  in  the  presence  of  substances  which 
interfere  with  the  luminosity  by  the  process  of  Mitscherlich. 

14 


206  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Failure  to  detect  the  poison. — It  may  readily  happen  that, 
owing  to  the  length  of  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  phos- 
phorus was  swallowed,  it  has  either  all  been  eliminated  from 
the  system,  or  what  remains  has  been  oxidized  into  phos- 
phorous, or  even  phosphoric,  acid.  In  such  a  case  it  can  no 
longer  be  detected,  either  by  the  method  of  Mitscherlich  or 
of  Lipowitz.  If  it  exists  in  the  form  of  phosphorous  acid,  the 
hydrogen  method  will  still  serve  to  discover  it;  but  if  it  has 
been  oxidized  to  phosphoric  acid,  other  processes  must  be  re- 
sorted to,  which  will  now  be  detailed. 

The  suspected  mixture,  after  dilution  (if  necessary),  and 
filtration,  is  treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid, 
and  concentrated  by  evaporation :  this  serves  to  convert  all 
the  lower  phosphorous  oxides  into  phosphoric  acid.  It  is 
then  treated  with  a  slight  excess  of  pure  carbonate  of  soda, 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  fused  in  a  porcelain  crucible.  By 
this  process  all  the  organic  matter  is  destroyed,  and  pure 
tribasic  phosphate  of  soda  remains.  This  is  dissolved  in 
water,  and  the  usual  tests  applied. 

This  method  of  testing  for  phosphorus  in  a  suspected  case 
of  poisoning  is  by  no  means  satisfactory,  since  phosphoric 
acid  in  combination  with  the  alkalies  and  earths  is  found 
in  the  different  animal  tissues,  and  also  in  many  articles  of 
vegetable  and  animal  food. 

The  exact  time  when  failure  to  detect  phosphorus  after  its 
administration  occurs,  is  not  definitively  settled.  It  must  evi- 
dently depend  on  the  usual  contingencies  of  early  and  copi- 
ous vomiting,  early  treatment,  etc.  One  instance  is  recorded 
where  it  was  discovered  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  on  the  tenth  day  after  it  was  taken;  another,  where  it 
was  found  in  the  free  state  in  the  stomach  after  fourteen  days' 
burial,  and  where,  moreover,  there  was  considerable  decom- 
position. The  longest  period  recorded  is  in  the  case  of  a 
child  three  and  a  half  years  old,  poisoned  by  phosphorus- 
paste.  A  grain  of  phosphorus  was  obtained  from  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines  after  the  body  had  been  buried  three  weeks 
(Dr.  Ludvvig,  Jour,  de  Chim.  Med.,  1863,  p.  584). 

Quantitative  determination-  —  Any  phosphorus  obtained  in 
the  solid  state,  after  washing  and  drying,  may  be  carefully 


PHOSPHORIC   ACID. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  207 

weighed  as  such.  If,  however,  it  has  been  converted  into 
phosphoric  acid,  it  is  determined  as  pyrophosphale  of  magnesia. 
For  this  purpose,  the  solution  is  treated  with  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  ammonia,  and  chloride  of  ammonium,  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  several  hours,  to  permit  the  complete  separation 
of  the  precipitate,  which  is  ammonio-magnesian  phosphate. 
This  is  collected  on  a  filter,  washed  with  water  containing 
a  little  ammonia,  dried,  ignited  (which  drives  off  the  am- 
monia), and,  after  cooling,  weighed.  Every  100  parts  of  the 
pure  ignited  residue  correspond  to  64  parts  of  anhydrous 
phosphoric  acid,  or  28  parts  of  phosphorus. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID. — This  acid,  together  with  phosphorous 
acid,  has  proved  fatal  to  the  lower  animals,  when  adminis- 
tered to  them  in  large  quantities.  It  has  been  supposed  by 
some  that  the  fatal  effects  of  phosphorus  on  the  human 
subject  were  owing  to  its  conversion  into  these  compounds. 
This  opinion,  however,  cannot  be  maintained,  as  it  is  op- 
posed to  experience. 

The  chemical  tests  for  phosphoric  acid  are  the  following: 

1.  Nitrate  of  silver. — -Free  phosphoric  acid  is  not  precipi- 
tated by  this  reagent;  but  from  neutral  solutions  of  the 
alkaline  phosphates  it  throws  down  a  light-yellow  tribasic 
phosphate  of  silver,  which  is  readily  soluble  in  ammonia,  and 
in  nitric,  acetic,  and  free  phosphoric  acids.  Hydrochloric 
acid  converts  it  into  the  white  chloride.  Nitrate  of  silver 
also  precipitates  a  neutral  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  of  a 
light-yellow  color,  soluble  in  ammonia  and  in  free  acids; 
but  the  precipitates  are  easily  .distinguished  from  each  other 
by  drying,  and  heating  them  in  a  reduction-tube :  the  latter 
yields  a  sublimate  of  octahedral  crystals  of  arsenious  acid, 
while  the  former  is  not  at  all  affected.  Again,  if  the  ar- 
senious solution  be  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
boiled  with  a  piece  of  bright  copper,  it  will  produce  a  de- 
posit of  metallic  arsenic ;  no  such  effect  is  caused  by  the 
phosphatic  solution. 

Nitrate  of  silver  also  yields  yellowish  precipitates  with  the 
iodides  and  bromides;  but  these  are  insoluble  in  dilute  nitric 
acid,  and  only  sparingly  soluble  in  ammonia. 


208  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

2.  Sulphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia. — A  mixture  of  sul- 
phate of  magnesia,  ammonia,  and  chloride  of  ammonium 
produces  with  phosphoric  acid,  both  free  and  in  combination 
with    alkalies,  a  characteristic   crystalline  precipitate — the 
ammonio-phosphate  of  magnesia.    The  crystals  have  a  beautiful 
feathery  stellate  appearance,  and  may  be  distinctly  identified 
under  the  microscope  from  a  solution  as  dilute  as  the  one- 
hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain  in  a  drop  of  water. 

Arsenic  acid  also  produces  with  the  ammonio-sulphate  of 
magnesia  a  similar  crystalline  precipitate :  the  latter,  how- 
ever, when  dissolved  in  just  sufficient  acetic  acid,  will  yield 
a  reddish-brown  precipitate  with  nitrate  of  silver;  while  the 
phosphatic  precipitate  treated  in  the  same  way,  yields  a  white 
precipitate. 

3.  Molybdate  of  ammonia.  —  This  reagent  should  first  be 
mixed  with  sufficient  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid  to  redissolve 
any  precipitate  that  forms.    A  small  quantity  of  this  mixture 
is  put  into  a  test-tube,  and  a  few  drops  of  the  phosphoric 
solution  are  added,  when  the  mixture  will  acquire  a  yellow 
color,  and  the  yellow  pulverulent  precipitate  of  phospho-molyb- 
date  of  ammonia  will  be  thrown  down.    A  gentle  heat  greatly 
promotes  this  reaction.    It  is  requisite  that  the  molybdate  of 
ammonia  should  be  in  very  strong  solution.    This  precipitate 
is  insoluble  in  the  strong  acids,  even  on  boiling;  but  it  is 
readily  soluble  in  excess  of  free  phosphoric  acid,  in  the  alka- 
line phosphates,  the  caustic  alkalies  and  their  carbonates, 
and  the  alkaline  tartrates. 

RED,  AMORPHOUS,  OR  ALLOTROPIC  PHOSPHORUS, — This  re- 
markable variety  of  phosphorus  is  prepared  by  exposing  or- 
dinary phosphorus  to  a  heat  of  450°  F.,  in  an  atmosphere 
deprived  of  oxygen  (as  in  carbonic  acid  gas),  for  a  number  of 
hours,  when  it  will  be  found  changed  into  a  hard,  dark-red, 
brick-like  mass,  from  which  any  unchanged  phosphorus  may 
be  dissolved  out  by  means  of  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

Red  phosphorus,  although  identical  with  the  common  variety 
in  its  chemical  composition,  is  totally  distinct  from  it  in 
physical,  chemical,  and  physiological  properties.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  two  are  clearly  shown  by  a  reference  to 
the  following  table,  taken  from  Dr.  Percy's  essay  (loc.  tit.} : 


POISONING   BY   IODINE.  209 

Common  Phosphorus.  Red  Phosphorus. 

Poisonous.  Innocuous. 

Evolves  a  strong  odor.  Nearly  odorless. 

Phosphorescent,    luminous    in     the      Not  phosphorescent, 
dark. 

Melts  at  108°  P.  Melts  at  about  500°  F. 

Transparent.  Opaque. 

Almost  colorless.  Varies  in  color   from   reddish-black 

lustrous,   to    iron- gray,   brick-red, 
crimson,  and  scarlet. 

Freely  soluble  in  various  liquids.  Nearly  insoluble  in  all  liquids. 

Distinctly  crystalline.  Amorphous. 

Soft ;  may  be  indented  with  the  nail.      Hard  as  red  brick. 

Flexible  as  copper  or  lead.  Brittle  as  glass. 

Oxidizes  in  the  air  at  ordinary  tern-      Unalterable  in  the  air. 
peratures. 

Unites  readily  with  other  elements.         Is  acted  on  by  other  elements  with 

great  difficulty. 

To  the  above  points  of  distinction  we  may  add  that  nitric 
acid  acts  upon  common  phosphorus  with  great  energy,  oxi- 
dizing it  to  phosphoric  acid :  it  produces  no  effect  on  the 
amorphous  variety ;  and  while  the  former  combines  with 
chlorine  gas  with  active  combustion  and  flame,  the  latter 
combines  with  it  without  flame. 

When  the  red,  amorphous  variety  is  heated  to  the  boiling- 
point  in  a  gas  devoid  of  oxygen,  it  is  again  restored  to  the 
state  of  ordinary  phosphorus.  Red  phosphorus  is  now  very 
extensively  used,  especially  in  Germany,  in  the  manufacture 
of  matches.  It  is  hoped  that  this  may  lead  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  poisonous  variety  for  this  purpose. 

SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY    IODINE   AND   BROMINE. 

IODINE  occurs  in  brilliant  dark-colored  scales,  resembling 
coarse  iron-tilings;  it  has  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor;  and 
gives  off,  when  heated,  violet  fumes,  which  are  powerfully 
irritating  to  the  nostrils,  throat,  and  lungs.  It  is  very  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  but  readily  so  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
and  also  in  the  aqueous  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium.  It 
is  found  in  the  shops  in  substance,  and  in  the  forms  of  tincture 
and  compound  tincture. 


210  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Symptoms. — Like  phosphorus,  iodine  produces  hoth  a  local 
and  a  remote  effect  on  the  system.  The  latter  is  the  usual 
result  of  the  continued  use  of  iodine  in  small  doses.  In  large 
doses  it  acts  as  a  powerful  irritant,  causing  burning  heat  in 
the  throat,  severe  pain  in  the  abdomen,  with  vomiting  and 
purging,  the  vomited  matters  having  the  peculiar  odor  of 
iodine,  and  being  of  a  yellowish  color,  except  when  farina- 
ceous food  had  been  taken,  in  which  case  they  are  blue  ; 
sometimes  they  are  mixed  with  blood.  The  discharges  from 
the  bowels  may  also  contain  iodine,  if  it  has  been  adminis- 
tered in  the  solid  state.  Besides  these  symptoms,  there  are 
others  indicating  the  absorption  of  the  poison,  and  its  influ- 
ence upon  the  nervous  system,  such  as  giddiness,  headache, 
thirst,  with  anxiety,  trembling,  convulsive  movements  of  the 
limbs,  and  fainting. 

In  chronic  poisoning  (iodism)  produced  by  the  prolonged 
employment  of  iodine,  in  medicinal  doses,  or  by  its  external 
application,  the  symptoms  are  vomiting  and  purging,  tremors, 
palpitatio'n,  pain  in  the  stomach,  cramps,  salivation,  general 
emaciation,  and  gradual  absorption  of  certain  glands  of  the 
body,  particularly  the  mammae  of  females  and  the  testes  of 
males:  there  is  usually  an  increase  of  most  of  the  secretions, 
and  enlargement  and  tenderness  of  the  liver.  All  of  these 
symptoms  are  not  generally  present  in  every  case  of  iodism, 
but  they  have  been  produced  by  small  doses  administered 
for  a  few  days  at  a  time. 

There  is  a  singular  uncertaint}7  in  the  action  of  large  doses 
of  iodine,  some  persons  appearing  to  be  insensible  to  its 
impression.  Sir  It.  Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  194,  et  seg.) 
mentions  cases  illustrating  this.  Dr.  Kennedy  gave  an  aver- 
age of  twelve  grains  daily,  in  the  form  of  tincture,  for  eighty 
days,  without  observing  any  effect  at  all ;  Mr.  Delisser  gave 
a  patient  thirty  grains  in  one  day,  without  injury  (quoted 
in  Dr.  Cogswell's  Experimental  Essay,  p.  23);  and  Dr.  S. 
"Wright  met  with  the  case  of  an  infant  three  years  old,  who 
took  three  drachms  of  the  tincture  at  a  dose,  and  only  suf- 
fered from  attempts  to  cough,  some  retching,  and  much 
thirst  (ibid.,  p.  27).  On  the  other  hand,  severe  symptoms 
have  been  observed  to  commence  when  half  a  grain  was 


POISONING   BY   IODINE. — IN    ORGANIC    MIXTURES.  211 

taken  three  times  a  day,  for  a  single  week  (Gairdner,  On 
the  Effects  of  Iodine,  p.  20).  Even  small  medicinal  doses, 
frequently  repeated,  have  been  known  to  break  out,  like 
digitalis,  mercury,  and  other  poisons,  with  alarming  vio- 
lence, the  symptoms  being  those  of  excessive  irritation. 

A  fatal  case  is  related  by  M.  Zink,  a  Swiss  physician.  His 
patient,  after  taking  too  large  doses  of  iodine  for  about  a 
month,  was  seized  with  restlessness,  burning  heat  of  the  skin, 
tremors,  palpitation,  syncope,  excessive  thirst,  very  frequent 
pulse,  violent  priapism,  and  copious  diarrhoea  of  bilious  and 
black  stools.  Death  occurred  after  six  weeks'  illness.  Another 
case  is  related  in  the  Provincial  Journal,  June,  1847,  p.  356, 
in  which  one  drachm  of  the  tincture  in  about  an  ounce  of 
spirit  is  said  to  have  proved  fatal. 

Morbid  appearances. — Redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  in  some  places  approaching  to  gan- 
grenous discoloration  ;  corrosion  of  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  stomach,  which  may  be  detached  in  large  patches ;  en- 
largement of  the  liver ;  contraction  and  redness  of  the  oesoph- 
agus ;  adhesion  of  the  abdominal  viscera  to  one  another,  with 
serous  effusion  into  the  peritoneum,  and  sometimes  into  the 
pleura. 

Chemical  analysis. — In  the  solid  form,  iodine  is  easily  recog- 
nized by  its  physical  properties,  above  mentioned.  When 
its  solution  is  added  to  cold  boiled  starch,  it  instantly  imparts 
to  it  a  tine  blue  color,  which  disappears  on  boiling,  and  re- 
appears on  suddenly  cooling.  The  color  disappears  perma- 
nently by  a  stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  This  is  a 
delicate  and  characteristic  test.  If  it  exist  in  combination, 
as  an  iodide,  the  iodine  must  first  be  liberated  before  the 
starch  test  will  act :  this  is  best  accomplished  by  adding  fresh 
chlorine-water,  which  decomposes  the  iodide ;  an  excess  of 
chlorine  will  bleach  the  blue  color,  and  cause  it  to  disap- 
pear. The  mineral  acids  will  also  liberate  iodine  from  the 
iodides. 

In  organic  mixtures. — Iodine  may  be  recovered  from  organic 
mixtures,  if  in  the  free  state,  by  the  action  of  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  which  freely  dissolves  it,  forming  a  rich  pink  solu- 
tion. By  decanting  the  watery  liquid  from  the  sulphide 


212  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

solution,  and  allowing  the  latter  to  evaporate,  the  iodine  will 
be  left  in  the  form  of  crystals. 

As  many  organic  substances  convert  iodine  into  hydriodic 
acid,  it  is  usually  to  be  sought  in  the  latter  combination. 
After  dilution,  if  necessary,  and  filtration,  the  starch  test 
may  be  applied,  provided  the  color  of  the  solution  is  not  too 
deep.  If  this  is  the  case,  it  is  recommended  to  agitate  it 
with  one-third  its  volume  of  ether,  which  will  separate  the 
free  iodine,  and  will  yield  the  appropriate  reaction  with 
starch.  Should  this  process  fail,  the  iodine  has  probably 
been  converted  into  an  iodide.  In  this  case,  Sir  R.  Christison 
(On  Poisons,  p.  199)  advises  the  following  course :  Add  water 
if  necessary,  and  filter:  if  the  filtrate  is  tolerably  free  from 
color,  test  a  little  of  it  with  solution  of  starch  and  chlorine. 
If  the  color  is  too  deep  to  admit  of  this  trial,  or  if  the  test 
fails,  unite  the  fluid  and  solid  parts,  and  transmit  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  to  convert  any  free  iodine  into  hydriodic  acid. 
Drive  oft' the  excess  of  gas;  supersaturate  with  a  considerable 
excess  of  potassa,  filter,  and  evaporate  to  dry  ness.  Char  the 
residue  at  a  low  red  heat  in  a  porcelain  crucible;  pulverize 
the  carbonaceous  mass,  and  exhaust  with  water.  Evaporate 
to  dryness,  and  again  exhaust  with  alcohol,  which  takes  up 
the  iodide  of  potassium  and  some  other  salts,  leaving  some 
of  the  salts  behind.  On  evaporating  the  alcoholic  solution 
to  dryness,  a  residuum  is  left,  which,  when  dissolved  in  water 
and  filtered,  will  give  the  characteristic  reaction  with  starch 
and  chlorine. 

By  the  above  method,  one  grain  of  iodide  of  potassium 
may  be  detected  in  six  ounces  of  urine. 

Iodide  of  potassium,  although  very  much  employed  in  medi- 
cine, in  doses  as  large  as  five  to  thirty  grains  several  times 
a  day,  occasionally  produces  violent  effects  on  the  system, 
such  as  griping  pains  in-  the  abdomen,  headache,  thirst,  fre- 
quent pulse,  dyspnosa,  arid  inflammation  of  the  nostrils  and 
eyes.  A  pustular  eruption  also  often  attends  its  use,  and 
salivation  is  an  occasional  symptom.  As  found  in  the  shops, 
this  salt  is  often  greatly  adulterated,  containing  sometimes 
as  much  as  fifty  to  nearly  eighty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
potash.  (Pereira,  Mat.  Med.,  i.  p.  489.) 


POISONING   BY   BROMINE. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  213 

Iodide  of  potassium  may  be  detected  in  the  blood,  liver, 
spleen,  muscles,  and  especially  in  the  urine. 

BROMINE. — This  is  a  dark-red,  volatile  liquid,  possessing  a 
very  pungent,  unpleasant  odor,  and  an  acrid  taste.  The  vapor 
is  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  eyes  and  lungs.  It  is  a  highly 
corrosive  fluid,  acting  upon  and  destroying  animal  tissues 
xvith  great  rapidity.  As  bromine  is  much  employed  in  da- 
guerreotyping,  it  may  readily  become  the  cause  of  poisoning. 
The  only  case  of  fatal  result  is  reported  by  Dr.  Sayre,  of  New 
York.  A  daguerreotypist,  aged  twenty-four  years,  of  good 
health  and  temperate  habits,  swallowed  one  ounce  of  bromine, 
for  the  purpose  of  self-destruction.  The  immediate  symp- 
toms were  spasmodic  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx 
and  pharynx,  and  great  difficulty  of  respiration.  This  was 
soon  followed  by  intense  burning  heat  in  the  stomach,  with 
great  auxiety,  restlessness,  and  trembling  of  the  hands.  The 
pulse  was  rapid,  tense,  and  corded,  and  the  breathing  greatly 
hurried.  The  stomach  was  entirely  empty  at  the  time  of 
taking  the  poison.  Various  means  were  tried,  unsuccessfully, 
for  his  relief,  and  the  symptoms  above  described  increased  in 
intensity;  the  hands  and  feet  became  cold,  with  failure  of 
the  pulse,  etc.,  and  death  took  place  seven  and  a  half  hours 
after  swallowing  the  poison. 

On  examination,  the  external  surface  of  the  stomach  was 
found  vividly  injected,  as  was  also  the  peritoneal  coat  of  the 
duodenum  and  the  mesentery.  The  viscera  lying  near  the 
stomach  were  stained  of  a  deep  yellow  color.  A  softened 
ecchymosed  spot,  one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  several 
others  of  smaller  size,  were  found  upon  the  peritoneal  coat 
of  the  stomach.  This  organ  contained  about  four  ounces  of 
thick  fluid  resembling  port-wine  dregs,  and  exhaling  a  faint 
odor  of  bromine.  Its  whole  internal  surface  was  covered 
with  a  thick  black  layer,  resembling  coarse  tanned  leather. 
The  mucous  membrane  was  very  thin,  and  there  was  intense 
submncous  injection.  (Wharton  and  Stille's  Med.  Jurisp., 
from  New  York  Jour,  of  Med.,  Nov.  1850.) 

Chemical  analysis. — Bromine  maybe  separated  from  organic 
mixtures  either  by  bisulphide  of  carbon  or  by  ether,  after 


214  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  method  described  for  iodine  (ante,  p.  211).  If  it  exists 
in  the  form  of  a  bromide,  this  may  be  decomposed  by  means 
of  chlorine,  or  by  one  of  the  mineral  acids.  Bromine  is 
characterized  by  imparting  a  deep  yellow  color  to  boiled 
starch. 

CHLORINE  is  a  powerfully  irritating  gas,  of  a  greenish- 
yellow  color.  If  inhaled  into  the  lungs,  it  may  destroy 
life  by  its  irritating  effects.  Orfila  found  that  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  chlorine  given  to  dogs,  caused  death  in  from  one  to 
four  days ;  the  symptoms  being  those  of  a  powerful  irritant 
to  the  stomach. 

Chlorine  is  readily  recognized  by  its  color  and  odor,  and 
especially  by  its  powerful  bleaching  properties. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

POISONING    BY   ARSENIC   (WHITE    OXIDE    OF   ARSENIC — ARSENIOUS 

ACID). 

THE  term  Arsenic  is  always  employed  in  Toxicology  (unless 
otherwise  qualified)  to  signify  the  white  oxide  of  arsenic, 
or  arsenious  acid.  The  metal  itself  is  very  rarely  used  for 
poisonous  purposes,  although  in  the  form  of  fly-powder — a 
mixture  sold  in  the  shops,  consisting  of  metallic  arsenic 
and  arsenious  acid — it  has  frequently  occasioned  death,  but 
chiefly  as  the  result  of  accident.  The  symptoms  and  morbid 
changes  produced  by  this  substance  are  essentially  the  same 
as  those  occasioned  by  arseuious  acid. 

Arsenic  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  metallic 
poisons,  whether  considered  as  to  the  frequency  of  its  use, 
the  facility  of  procuring  it,  the  ease  of  administration,  or 
the  extent  of  its  employment,  both  in  medicine  and  in  the 
arts.  It  enters  extensively  into  the  composition  of  the  earth, 
being  found  in  the  form  of  the  metal,  arsenious  acid,  the 
two  sulphides  (realgar  and  orpimentj,  and  as  a  constituent 


POISONING    BY   ARSENIC.  215 

of  several  ores  of  iron,  copper,  silver,  tin,  zinc,  nickel,  and 
cobalt.  Most  of  the  arsenious  acid  of  commerce  is  prepared 
from  a  native  arsenical  sulphuret  of  iron,  known  as  mis- 
pickel. 

Much  of  the  sulphuric  acid  found  in  the  shops  is  con- 
taminated with  arsenic,  derived  from  the  iron  pyrites  used  in 
its  manufacture;  and  as  this  acid,  in  its  turn,  is  employed  in 
making  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  and  other  chemical 
products,  the  impurity  is  carried  into  these  likewise.  The 
two  metals  zinc  and  copper,  especially  the  former,  are  often 
found  to  contain  arsenic. 

In  the  arts,  arsenious  acid  enters  into  numerous  com- 
pounds, as  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  of  white  enamel. 
Composition  candles  sometimes  contain  it.  It  is  employed 
to  prevent  "furring"  in  steam-boilers;  ship-builders  mix 
it  with  tar  to  protect  timber  from  worms ;  it  is  sold  in 
powders  for  destroying  rats  and  other  vermin;  farmers  use 
it  to  preserve  grain  for  seed,  also  as  an  ingredient  in  dip- 
ping compounds  for  sheep.  Grooms  give  it  to  their  horses 
to  improve  their  coats;  and  there  seems  to  be  sufficient  tes- 
timony to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  peasants  of  Styria, 
as  also  the  inhabitants  of  other  countries,  habitually  take 
arsenic  for  the  purpose  of  improving  their  complexions  and 
rendering  themselves  capable  of  greater  physical  endurance. 
(See  Dr.  Roscoe's  paper  to  the  Manchester  Philos.  Society, 
Oct.  30,  1860 ;  also,  Dr.  Maclagan's  paper  in  Edin.  Med. 
Jour.,  vol.  x.  p.  200;  also,  letter  from  Dr.  Knapp,  ibid.,  p. 
609.) 

Besides  arseuious  acid,  the  other  preparations  of  arsenic 
which  are  important  in  a  medico-legal  view  are  the  yellow 
sulphide  (orpiment),  the  arsenite  and  aceto-arsenites  of  copper 
(Scheele's  green  and  Paris  green),  and  the  solution  of  arsenite  of 
potash  (Fowler's  solution). 

Metallic  arsenic  sublimes  at  356°  F.  (Prof.  Guy  has  found 
that  small  quantities  sublime  at  230°.)  Its  vapor  has  the 
odor  of  garlic,  similar  to  that  of  the  vapor  of  phosphorus. 
Heated  in  close  vessels,  it  is  deposited  unchanged ;  but 
heated  with  access  of  air,  it  is  oxidized,  and  deposited  in 
brilliant  octahedral  crystals. 


216  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Properties  of  arsenious  acid. — It  occurs  in  commerce  in  the 
form  of  masses,  or  as  a  white,  heavy  powder.  The  cake 
when  first  sublimed  is  translucent,  but  on  exposure  to  the 
air  it  becomes  opaque,  resembling  white  enamel.  It  is 
nearly  tasteless,  or  has  only  a  faint  sourish  taste.  It  is 
erroneously  described  as  being  acrid  to  the  taste.  Its  com- 
parative want  of  taste  renders  it  easy  to  be  administered  with 
a  criminal  intent,  or  to  be  swallowed  by  mistake.  Its  solu- 
bility in  water  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  treated: 
thus,  water  boiled  for  an  hour  on  arsenious  acid,  and  allowed 
to  cool,  dissolves  the  fortieth  part  of  its  weight,  or  about 
twelve  grains  to  the  ounce.  If  boiled  for  a  shorter  time, 
not  more  than  one-eightieth  part  will  be  dissolved ;  cold 
water  allowed  to  stand  for  many  hours  on  the  poison,  does 
not  dissolve  more  than  the  one-thousandth  to  one  five- 
hundredth  part  of  its  weight,  or  about  half  a  grain  to  one 
fluidounce  of  water.  (Vide  Taylor's  Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed., 
1873,  p.  195.)  Its  solubility  is  much  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  alkali,  but  diminished  by  the  presence  of  organic 
matter.  It  is  very  soluble  in  ammonia,  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  carbonate  of  potassa.  Its  solution  deposits  octahedral 
crystals  on  evaporation.  It  possesses  a  slight  acid  reaction, 
combining  with  alkalies,  and  forming  soluble  arsenites. 

When  arsenious  acid  is  heated  to  the  temperature  of  370° 
to  400°  F.  (about  280°,  according  to  Prof.  Guy,  Forens.  Med., 
p.  429),  it  sublimes  in  the  form  of  a  white  vapor,  which  is 
inodorous,  and  is  deposited  on  a  cool  surface  either  as  an 
amorphous  powder  or  in  octahedral  crystals.  If  it  be  thrown 
upon  red-hot  charcoal,  the  odor  of  the  vapor  will  be  allia- 
ceous, because  the  carbon  has  reduced  the  arsenious  acid  to 
the  metallic  form,  the  vapor  of  which,  as  already  stated,  has 
the  garlicky  odor. 

Symptoms. — These  usually  set  in  within  an  hour  after  swal- 
lowing a  poisonous  dose.  There  is  generally  first  a  sense  of 
faintness,  attended  with  a  feeling  of  heat  and  constriction 
of  the  throat,  and  with  thirst,  nausea,  and  burning  pain  in 
the  stomach.  The  pain  soon  becomes  excruciating,  and  is 
attended  with  violent  retching  and  vomiting.  The  matters 
vomited  are  sometimes  streaked  with  blood;  the  pain  in  the 


POISONING   BY   ARSENIC. — SYMPTOMS.  217 

stomach  is  increased  by  pressure,  and  soon  extends  over  the 
whole  abdomen.  There  is  generally  severe  purging,  with 
tenesmus,  and  frequently  bloody  discharges  from  the  bowels. 
The  thirst  is  usually  intense  ;  and  sometimes  there  is  great 
difficulty  in  swallowing.  The  features  are  collapsed,  and  ex- 
pressive of  great  pain ;  the  pulse  is  small,  quick,  and  irreg- 
ular; the  skin  cold  and  clammy,  but  occasionally  hot;  the 
eyes  red ;  the  tongue  dry  and  furred ;  the  respiration  labored. 
Sometimes  there  are  violent  cramps  in  the  legs  and  arms. 
The  urine  is  often  partially  suppressed,  and  passed  with 
pain.  In  certain  cases,  stupor,  delirium,  and  convulsions 
are  manifested.  In  many  instances  death  takes  place  calmly, 
the  intellect  continuing  undisturbed  to  the  last.  When  the 
poison  proves  rapidly  fatal,  death  commonly  takes  place  by 
collapse,  or  by  coma.  In  more  chronic  cases,  the  patient  dies 
exhausted  by  the  violence  of  the  irritative  fever,  or  after  a 
long  train  of  nervous  symptoms,  terminated  by  convulsions. 
Patients  who  recover  may  suffer  for  a  length  of  time  from  indi- 
gestion, from  a  paralysis  of  the  limbs,  or  from  epileptic  tits. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  cases  of  poisoning 
by  arsenic  present  a  very  great  variety  of  character,  com- 
bination, and  severity  of  the  symptoms:  consequently  we 
should  be  prepared  for  exceptional  and  anomalous  cases. 
Thus,  in  one  class  of  cases  the  symptoms  are  those  above 
described,  in  an  aggravated  form,  indicating  excessive  irrita- 
tion of  all  the  mucous  membranes,  along  with  intense  head- 
ache and  giddiness,  incessant  restlessness,  violent  cramps, 
followed,  if  life  be  prolonged,  by  convulsions,  tetanic  spasms, 
epileptic  fits,  delirium,  and  coma — symptoms  indicating  ex- 
cessive nervous  disturbance.  In  another  class  the  symp- 
toms are  those  of  collapse.  There  is  little  or  no  pain,  vomit- 
ing, or  diarrhoea;  but  a  cold  and  clammy  skin,  extreme 
prostration,  very  frequent  and  feeble  pulse,  or  else  one  very 
slow  and  weak;  the  rnind  is  very  slightly  impaired,  but  there 
is  some  approach  to  coma,  slight  cramps  and  convulsions, 
and  death,  without  reaction,  in  four  or  live  hours.  Christison 
reports  a  case  of  this  kind,  where  death  took  place  in  four 
hours,  without  any  vomiting,  although  the  patient  had  taken, 
emetics.  Mr.  Fox  reports  a  similar  case  (Lancet,  Nov.  4, 


218  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

1848),  in  which  a  stout,  healthy  young  man  took  a  teaspoonful 
of  arsenious  acid  by  mistake.  No  marked  symptom  was  ex- 
hibited for  nearly  six  hours,  when  purging  suddenly  super- 
vened, and  he  vomited  two  or  three  times;  he  then  became 
drowsy ;  his  countenance  sunken  and  livid ;  pulse  rapid  and 
extremely  feeble;  body  cold  and  clammy;  involuntary  stools 
of  a  watery  character;  no  pain  or  tenderness  of  abdomen; 
no  tenesmus ;  mind  rational.  Soon  afterwards  he  complained 
of  dimness  of  sight,  lay  down  on  the  bed,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  expired. 

In  a  third  class  of  cases  the  patient  falls  into  a  profound 
sleep,  deepening  into  coma,  and  dies  in  a  few  hours,  without 
rallying.  Such  a  case  is  reported  by  Mr.  T.  Wright,  of  Dub- 
lin (Lancet,  vol.  xii.  p.  194),  where  death  took  place  in  four 
hours,  succeeding  coma.  The  autopsy  here  revealed  no  trace 
of  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach, 
even  in  the  spots  covered  with  the  arsenic. 

In  a  fourth  class  the  symptoms  very  closely  resemble 
those  of  cholera,  so  much  so  as  easily  to  be  confounded  with 
them.  Such  was  the  case  of  the  Duke  of  Praslin,  who  died 
in  Paris  in  1847,  from  arsenical  poisoning. 

In  most  cases  of  acute  poisoning  by  this  substance  the 
symptoms  steadily  run  their  course ;  yet  sometimes  there  is 
a  marked  remission,  or  even  an  intermission,  of  the  most 
prominent  symptoms,  lasting  for  several  hours  ;  after  which 
these  return  with  increased  violence.  In  some  instances  this 
remission  has  been  repeated  several  times  in  the  same  case. 

All  the  above  varieties  occur  under  large  and  small  doses ; 
and  they  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the  quantity,  the  form, 
or  the  mode  of  administration  of  the  poison.  Among  the 
occasional  symptoms,  a  livid  appearance  of  the  face,  jaundice, 
and  an  eczematous  eruption  have  been  noticed.  It  has  often 
happened  that  in  a  case  of  fatal  poisoning  by  a  very  large 
dose  of  arsenic,  and  where  the  stomach  was  found  intensely 
inflamed,  the  patient  had  complained  of  no  previous  pain 
whatever.  Arsenic  would  thus  appear,  in  some  instances,  to 
destroy  sensibility. 

The  symptoms  of  chronic  poisoning  usually  result  from  fre- 
quent repetition  of  a  dose  of  the  substance  which  of  itself 


POISONING    BY   ARSENIC. — EXTERNAL   APPLICATION.        219 

is  too  small  to  be  followed  by  fatal  effects.  The  most  prom- 
inent symptoms  are  great  distress  about  the  stomach,,  with 
the  ordinary  signs  of  indigestion ;  a  sense  of  burning  ex- 
perienced throughout  the  alimentary  canal ;  frequent  nausea 
and  vomiting,  and  painful  diarrhoea;  inflammation  of  the 
eyes;  intolerance  of  light;  headaches;  giddiness;  a  jaun- 
diced skin  ;  cutaneous  eruptions;  local  paralysis;  exfoliation 
of  the  cuticle  and  of  the  skin  of  the  tongue;  falling  out 
of  the  hair;  salivation;  great  emaciation;  hemorrhage  of 
the  nose;  petechiae;  pain  of  the  joints  and  back;  and  a 
general  wearing  out  of  the  whole  system. 

The  time  when  the  symptoms  first  manifest  themselves  varies 
considerably.  In  most  instances  they  appear  within  half  an 
hour,  or  an  hour,  after  taking  the  poison.  Cases  are  reported 
where  the  symptoms  appeared  in  the  act  of  swallowing  it; 
others,  where  they  were  manifested  in  eight,  ten,  and  fifteen 
minutes  after.  On  the  other  hand,  numerous  instances  are 
recorded  where  the  time  was  protracted  for  many  hours  after 
taking  it.  The  longest  interval  observed  was  in  a  case  men- 
tioned by  Dr.  "Wood  (U.  S.  Dispensatory,  1865,  p.  26),  where 
a  drachm  had  been  swallowed,  and  the  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing were  delayed  for  sixteen  hours.  The  great  discrepancy  in 
regard  to  the  period  when  the  symptoms  manifest  themselves, 
may  be  explained  in  part,  at  least,  by  the  condition  of  the 
stomach  at  the  time  of  receiving  the  poison.  If  it  were 
swallowed  soon  after  a  meal,  while  this  organ  was  full,  ab- 
sorption would  necessarily  be  retarded,  and  the  operation  of 
the  poison  would  be  delayed.  Again,  if  swallowed  just  before 
going  to  bed,  its  action  would  be  delayed  by  sleep.  The  state 
(solid  or  fluid)  of  the  poison  would  also  influence  it.  The 
habitual  use  of  narcotics  would  likewise  tend  to  retard  its 
action.  But,  even  admitting  all  this,  we  must  still  be  at  a 
loss  to  account  for  many  cases  of  delay  in  the  manifestation 
of  the  usual  symptoms. 

The  external  application  of  arsenic  to  abraded  surfaces  has 
often  been  attended  with  fatal  results.  Dr.  McCready  reports 
a  case  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  July,  1851)  where  a  woman  ap- 
plied a  mixture  of  arsenious  acid  and  gin  to  the  head  of  a 
child  affected  with  porrigo  favosa :  it  caused  death  in  thirty- 


220  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

six  hours.  Numerous  cases  are  recorded,  both  in  Europe  and 
in  America,  of  the  fatal  effects  of  the  application  of  arsenic 
to  open  cancers,  by  the  cancer-curers.  In  some  of  these  cases 
the  poison  has  been  detected  after  death  in  the  different 
organs  of  the  body,  which  had  received  it  by  the  process  of 
absorption. 

Arsenic  has  also  proved  fatal  when  applied  to  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  rectum  and  vagina.  In  a  case  reported  by 
Dr.  Mangor,  a  man  poisoned  three  wives  in  succession,  by 
introducing  arsenic  into  the  vagina  (Wormley).  In  at  least 
two  of  these  instances  the  poison  produced  its  usual  symp- 
toms, and  death  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  all  the  cases  above 
alluded  to,  of  death  from  the  external  application  of  arsenic, 
the  usual  characteristic  symptoms  were  noticed,  such  as  the 
burning  and  constriction  of  the  throat,  the  thirst,  the  vomit- 
ing and  purging,  the  great  depression,  and  the  various  ner- 
vous disturbances  already  mentioned. 

Within  a  few  years  a  number  of  cases  of  chronic  poisoning 
have  been  traced  to  persons'  occupying  rooms  hung  with 
paper  stained  with  arsenical  pigment  (Scheele's  green):  the 
dust  from  the  paper,  becoming  detached,  and  being  inhaled 
into  the  lungs,  occasioned  the  results  mentioned. 

fatal  dose. — According  to  Prof.  Lachese,  of  Angers,  one 
to  two  grains  of  arsenious  acid  may  prove1  fatal  to  an  adult. 
Dr.  Taylor  gives  a  case  where  two  grains  of  the  poison,  in 
the  form  of  Fowler's  solution,  taken  in  divided  doses  during 
a  period  of  five  days,  destroyed  the  life  of  a  woman.  The 
same  writer  cites  another  case,  reported  by  Dr.  Letheby,  in 
which  two  and  a  half  grains  killed  a  robust,  healthy  girl  of 
nineteen  years,  in  thirty-six  hours.  Much  smaller  quantities 
have  given  rise  to  alarming  symptoms.  On  the  other  hand, 
recovery  has  taken  place  from  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  one 
ounce,  and  even  two  ounces  of  the  poison  in  substance.  Dr. 
A.  Stille  (Therapeutics,  vol.  ii.  p.  707)  gives  the  case  of  a 
woman  who  swallowed  about  a  dessertspoonful  of  the  poison 
immediately  after  a  hearty  meal ;  and  although  there  was  no 
vomiting,  and  no  remedies  were  administered  for  an  hour 
and  a  half,  yet  within  five  days  complete  recovery  ensued. 

The  following  remarkable  case  is  reported  by  Dr.  W.  C. 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — FATAL   PERIOD.  221 

Jackson  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  July,  1858).  A  man  aged 
twenty-eight  years  took,  on  an  empty  stomach,  not  less  than 
two  ounces  of  arsenious  acid.  Nearly  two  hours  after,  there 
was  a  slight  vomiting,  with  some  traces  of  the  arsenic  ;  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  poison  was  retained  in  the  body  for 
six  hours.  Great  irritability  of  the  stomach  then  ensued, 
with  a  burning  sensation  in  this  organ,  and  in  the  throat. 
This  condition  continued  about  six  hours,  after  which  the 
patient  rapidly  recovered. 

Fatal  period. — The  great  majority  of  deaths  occur  within 
twenty-four  hours.  According  to  Prof.  Guy  (Forensic  Med., 
p.  449),  the  average  duration  of  fatal  cases  is  twenty  hours. 
More  than  half  of  these  terminate  within  six  hours;  two- 
thirds  within  eight  hours;  and  more  than  three-fourths  within 
twelve  hours.  The  shortest  period,  with  one  exception,  within 
which  it  has  proved  fatal,  is  two  hours,  of  which  three  or  four 
instances  are  on  record.  Another  case,  related  by  Sir  R.  Chris- 
tison  (On  Poisons,  p.  240),  proved  fatal  in  three  hours.  Dr. 
Taylor  (Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p.  256)  relates  the  most  rapidly 
fatal  case  yet  recorded, — of  a  youth  aged  seventeen  years, 
who  died  from  the  effects  of  a  large  dose  of  arsenic  accident- 
ally swallowed :  the  symptoms  were  of  a  tetanic  character, 
and  death  took  place  in  twenty  minutes  after  swallowing  the 
poison.  On  the  other  hand,  death  may  be  protracted  for 
months,  and  even  years,  the  patient  experiencing  great  dis- 
tress during  the  whole  interval.  Belloc  reports  the  case  of  a 
woman  who  died  after  two  years'  suffering  from  the  effects  of 
arsenic  applied  externally  for  the  cure  of  itch.  (Cours  de 
Med.  Leg.,  p.  121.) 

Arsenic  is  not  a  cumulative  poison :  it  is  temporarily  de- 
posited in  the  organs — liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  heart,  etc., — after 
absorption,  but  it  is  rapidly  eliminated  by  the  urine,  and  also 
by  the  bile;  and  if  the  person  survives  for  a  certain  length 
of  time,  the  whole  of  it  may  be  removed  from  the  body,  so 
that  none  shall  be  discovered,  after  death,  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  exact  period  required  for  the  elimination  of  arsenic  from 
the  human  body  has  not  been  definitively  settled ;  although 
authorities  generally  agree  that  fifteen  or  sixteen  days  may  be 
regarded  as  the  limit.  Orfila  held  this  view.  This  is  on  the 

15 


222  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

assumption  that  there  is  no  suppression  of  urine,  or  of  the 
other  secretions.  The  case  of  Dr.  Alexander  (Med.  Times  and 
Gaz.,  April  18,  1857)  is  of  great  interest  in  this  connection. 
This  gentleman  accidentally  swallowed  a  large  dose  of  ar- 
senious  acid;  and,  after  suffering  from  the  usual  symptoms, 
he  died  on  the  sixteenth  day.  The  chemical  analysis  detected 
no  trace  of  the  poison  in  any  organ  of  the  body,  although  it 
was  abundantly  contained  in  the  food  swallowed  by  the  de- 
ceased. In  this  case  the  arsenic  had  been  completely  elim- 
inated in  sixteen  days.  Dr.  Maclagan  (Ed.  Month.  Jour., 
vol.  xiv.,1852,  p.  131)  reports  a  case  in  which  a  woman  swal- 
lowed half  a  dessertspoonful  of  arsenic,  but  recovered  after 
being  under  treatment  for  twenty-five  days.  The  urine  was 
constantly  examined,  and  continued  to  yield  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  the  poison  up  to  the  twenty-first  day. 

The  rapidity  with  which  arsenic  is  absorbed  and  deposited 
in  the  tissues  is  very  great.  Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  46) 
found  it  in  the  liver  in  four  hours  after  it  had  been  swallowed. 
Dr.  Geoghegan's  observations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
liver  acquires.its  maximum  of  saturation  in  siboutjifteen  hours. 

This  question  of  the  period  of  elimination  of  absorbed 
arsenic  is  one  of  considerable  importance  in  a  medico-legal 
view.  For  example,  if  a  person  who  had  been  taking  arsenic 
in  small  doses,  medicinally,  for  a  length  of  time,  should  sud- 
denly die  of  gastro-enteritis,  under  suspicious  circumstances, 
the  death  might  be  ascribed  to  poison ;  and  the  suspicion 
would  appear  to  be  confirmed  by  the  detection  of  arsenic 
in  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  Now,  if  it  could  be 
conclusively  shown  that  the  deceased  had  been  using  arsenic 
medicinally  up  to  three  weeks,  or  even  one  month,  before 
death,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  mere  detection  of  the 
absorbed  arsenic,  especially  if  it  were  absent  from  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  would  not  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  death 
had  been  occasioned  by  this  poison.  It  is  known  positively 
that  other  metallic  poisons,  such  as  antimony,  copper,  silver, 
and  lead,  do  remain  in  the  organs  many  months  after  they 
have  ceased  to  be  taken;  and  analogy  would  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve that,  in  some  instances  at  least,  the  period  of  the  deten- 
tion of  arsenic  might  be  protracted.  The  case  of  Lacoste, 


POISONING   BY   ARSENIC. — POST-MORTEM    SIGNS.  223 

which  occurred  in  France,  in  1844,  is  one  in  point.  The 
deceased  had,  for  some  time  previous  to  his  death,  been  in 
the  habit  of  using  arsenic  as  a  remedy  for  some  cutaneous 
disease.  He  died  under  somewhat  suspicious  circumstances; 
and  on  examination  of  the  body,  nine  months  afterwards,  ar- 
senic was  found  deposited  in  the  soft  organs.  It  was  proved 
that  the  deceased  had  taken  none  of  the  medicine  for  a 
period  of  fifteen  days  prior  to  his  death,  and  the  prosecution 
contended  that  the  arsenic  found  in  the  tissues  could  not  be 
ascribed  to  this  medicine,  but  must  have  been  some  portion 
of  the  poison  subsequently  administered,  and  therefore  that 
the  prisoner  was  guilty  of  the  crime.  No  arsenic  was  found 
in  the  free  state  in  the  bowels,  and  the  stomach  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  examined !  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  prisoner  was  very  properly  acquitted.  The  small  quantity 
of  the  poison  found  in  the  organs  was  considered  quite  con- 
sistent with  the  theory  of  medicinal  administration  (vide  p.  28). 

Arsenic  is  known  to  be  deposited  in  the  bones,  but  not  in 
the  hair;  neither  in  the  feathers  of  birds  (Taylor). 

Post-mortem  appearances.  —  These  are  to  be  especially  no- 
ticed as  they  are  presented  in  the  stomach  and  bowels.  They 
are  generally  well  marked  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
dose,  and  the  length  of  time  elapsing  after  taking  the  poison. 
Arsenic  seems  to  have  a  specific  effect  on  the  stomach,  no 
matter  how  it  may  have  entered  the  system — whether  swal- 
lowed, or  injected  into  the  rectum  or  the  vagina,  or  inhaled 
into  the  lungs,  or  introduced  subcutaneously.  Accordingly, 
in  the  generality  of  cases  we  find  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach  exhibiting  evidences  of  active  inflammation. 
Sometimes  the  whole  surface  is  of  a  deep  crimson  color;  at 
other  times  it  is  of  a  deep  brownish  red;  again,  it  is  inter- 
spersed with  dark  patches  or  lines  of  effused  blood,  which  have 
been  mistaken  for  gangrene.  Occasionally  it  is  much  thick- 
ened and  corrugated.  When  the  arsenic  has  been  taken  in 
substance,  it  is  common  to  find  several  patches,  varying  in 
size  from  one  inch  to  three  inches,  consisting  of  a  tough  white 
or  yellowish  paste  of  arsenious  acid  mixed  with  lymph  and 
mucus  firmly  adherent  to  the  inflamed  membrane,  and  form- 
ing so  many  centres  of  intense  inflammation.  White  spots 


224  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

of  arsenious  acid  are  often  found  between  the  rugse;  and 
sometimes  yellow  points  of  the  sulphide,  in  cases  where  the 
examination  has  been  made  a  long  time  after  death,  and 
where  decomposition  has  advanced.  Tardieu  very  properly 
cautions  us  not  to  mistake,  for  these,  certain  little  white 
and  yellow  specks,  frequently  found  on  the  inner  walls  of 
the  stomach,  and  consisting  merely  of  albumen  and  fatty 
matters. 

Ulceration  of  the  stomach  is  of  rare  occurrence;  but  it  has 
been  found  as  early  as  ten  hours  after  the  poison  had  been 
taken.  'We  have  seen  a  case,  where  the  examination  was 
made  about  four  months  after  death,  in  which  there  was  an 
ulcer  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  near  the  greater 
extremity:  it  was  surrounded  by  a  deep  zone  of  dark,  effused 
blood,  and  it  had  penetrated  down  to  the  peritoneal  coat  of 
the  organ.  Perforation  of  the  stomach  is  still  more  un- 
common ;  although  a  few  instances  are  reported. 

The  inflammation  usually  extends  down  the  alimentary 
canal,  involving  the  duodenum  and  portions  of  the  ileum. 
Tt  is  apt  to  be  more  decided  about  the  caecum  and  rectum. 
The  oesophagus  also  is  occasionally  the  seat  of  inflammation, 
and  more  rarely  the  mucous  lining  of  the  mouth,  fauces, 
and  tongue.  The  lungs  and  brain  have  occasionally  been 
found  congested,  and  in  some  cases  the  bladder  has  exhibited 
signs  of  inflammation ;  but  none  of  these  are  sufficiently 
characteristic  to  be  of  any  medico-legal  importance.  The 
blood  is  usually  liquid,  and  of  a  dark  color.  The  most 
remarkable  fact  connected  with  the  post-mortem  sign.-?,  is 
the  occasional  absence  of  all  traces  of  inflammation,  and  of 
every  other  characteristic  change ;  and  this,  too,  where  there 
had  been  well-marked  and  violent  inflammatory  symptoms 
before  death. 

Another  point  worthy  of  observation  is  the  antiseptic  power 
of  arsenic  over  the  body.  .As  a  rule,  the  body  will  be  found 
in  a  remarkable  state  of  preservation,  even  many  months 
after  death  from  arsenical  poison.  This  preservative  influ- 
ence is  more  particularly  noticed  in  the  internal  parts,  where 
the  poison  has  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  organs. 
In  such  cases,  a  most  noticeable  fact,  in  making  the  autopsy, 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — ANTISEPTIC   POWER.  225 

is  the  absence  of  all  true  cadaveric  odor:  in  its  stead  a  pecu- 
liar smell  is  perceived,  which  is  described  as  resembling 
that  of  old  cheese.  Very  generally  also,  in  such  cases,  on 
opening  the  abdominal  cavity,  the  contents  will  present  a 
decidedly  yellowish  appearance, — the  color  being  brighter 
in  spots  scattered  along  the  stomach  and  intestines.  This 
yellow  color  is  due  to  the  yellow  sulphide  (orpiment),  which 
has  been  produced,  in  the  process  of  putrefaction,  by  the 
action  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  on  the  arsenious  acid. 
Christison  alludes  to  this  as  "  the  effect  of  a  chemical  test 
applied  to  the  poison  by  nature."  The  time  at  which  this 
change  takes  place  varies :  Dr.  Taylor  has  found  it  as  early 
as  twenty-eight  days  after  death,  though,  of  course,  the  greater 
the  length  of  time,  the  more  complete  would  we  naturally 
expect  the  conversion  to  be. 

The  length  of  time  that  the  preservative  effects  of  arsenic 
will  last  upon  a  human  body  seems  to  vary.  It  is  by  no 
means  unusual  to  find  the  body  in  a  good  state  of  preserva- 
tion many  months,  or  even  years,  after  burial.  Of  course, 
in  the  latter  case,  many  portions  might  be  more  or  less  de- 
composed; but  the  point  of  medico-legal  interest  is,  that  the 
poison  can  thus  be  discovered  years  after  its  administration. 
Dr.  "Webster  found  it  in  a  body  fourteen  years  after  death 
(Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  vol.  xxxix.  p.  489). 

It  is  fortunate  for  the  ends  of  justice  that  arsenic  not  only 
preserves  the  stomach  where  surrounding  parts  are  in  a  state 
of  decay,  but  that  even  the  characteristic  marks  of  inflam- 
mation may  be  present  after  several  months  of  interment. 

It  is  proper  to  state  that  the  antiseptic  power  of  arsenic  is 
not  always  witnessed  in  the  dead  body.  In  fact,  in  some 
cases  the  process  of  putrefaction  seemed  to  advance  with  in- 
creased rapidity.  Besides,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
body  is  sometimes  unusually  preserved  in  ordinary  cases  of 
death.  Nevertheless,  the  general  fact  of  the  antiseptic  power 
of  arsenic  cannot  be  disputed.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that 
the  expert  witness  would  not  always  be  justified  in  asserting 
that,  because  the  body  had  resisted  putrefaction  for  an  un- 
usual length  of  time,  this  preservation  was  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  arsenic,  since  it  may  really  be  attributable  to  other 


226  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

causes  (vide  ante,  p.  41).  This  question  may  assume  very 
considerable  importance  in  a  trial,  where  the  defense  takes 
tha  ground  that  any  arsenic  found  in  the  body  a  long  time 
after  burial,  has  resulted  from  post-mortem  imbibition  of  the 
poison,  which  had  been  secretly  introduced  into  the  stomach  after 
death,  and  not  from  ante-mortem  poisoning.  If,  in  such  a 
case,  it  should  happen  that  the  body  had  been  better  pre- 
served than  usual,  the  mere  fact  of  such  preservation  could 
not,  as  we  have  seen,  be  positively  ascribed  to  the  presence  of 
arsenic  (ibid.}. 

Treatment. — If  the  patient  is  not  already  vomiting  freely, 
a  prompt  emetic  should  be  administered,  such  as  a  combina- 
tion of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  ipecacuanha;  or,  in  the  absence 
of  this,  some  warm  mustard  and  water.  The  vomiting  should 
be  assisted  by  the  free  use  of  warm  demulcent  drinks.  After 
this,  the  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron,  in  the  moist  state,  should 
be  freely  exhibited.  This  substance  may  be  regarded  as  the 
best-known  antidote  for  arsenic.  It  most  probably  acts  by 
combining  with  it,  so  as  to  form  the  insoluble  arsenate  of 
iron.  This  antidote  should  be  administered  in  large  excess, 
and,  as  already  stated,  in  the  moist  state.  It  may  be  extem- 
poraneously prepared  by  diluting  the  tinct.  ferri  chloridi  of  the 
shops  with  water,  and  adding  aqua  ammonia  to  precipitate 
the  sesquioxide.  The  precipitate  should  be  thoroughly 
washed,  and  given  in  tablespoonful  doses.  After  the  em- 
ployment of  the  antidote,  a  dose  of  castor  oil  may  be  admin- 
istered, to  carry  the  resulting  compound  through  the  bowels. 

In  relation  to  the  efficacy  of  this  antidote,  we  believe  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Numerous  cases  are  reported  attesting 
its  value  in  poisoning  from  arsenic.  Prof.  Wormley  (Micro- 
Chemistry  of  Poisons,  p.  247)  gives  the  results  of  twelve  ex- 
periments made  upon  dogs;  these  had  previously,  or  simul- 
taneously, taken  a  dose  of  arsenious  acid  which  had  by  a 
prior  experiment  been  proved  to  be  a  fatal  dose :  in  every 
instance  the  animal  entirely  recovered. 

The  freshly  precipitated  hydrate  of  magnesia  has  also  been 
recommended  as  an  antidote.  The  treatment  of  the  result- 
ing inflammation  and  of  the  other  symptoms  should  be 
conducted  on  general  principles. 


POISONING    BY  ARSENIC. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  227 

Chemical  analysis. — I.  In  the  solid  state. — (1)  A  small  quan- 
tity of  the  white  powder  placed  on  platinum-foil  and  heated 
in  a  spirit-lamp  is  entirely  volatilized,  giving  off  a  white, 
inodorous  vapor.  (2)  Slowly  heated  in  a  narrow  reduction- 
tube,  it  sublimes  without  melting,  and  is  deposited  in  the 
form  of  a  white  ring  of  brilliant  octahedral  crystals,  visible 
by  a  good  magnifier,  or  a  low  power  of  the  microscope.  (3) 
Moistened  by  liquor  potassse,  it  undergoes  no  change  of  color, 
— which  distinguishes  it  from  either  calomel  or  corrosive 
sublimate.  (4)  Moistened  by  sulphide  of  ammonium,  and 
allowing  the  excess  of  ammonia  to  pass  off,  a  yellow  sul- 
phide of  arsenic  remains.  (5)  Mixed  with  some  reducing 
agent,  such  as  charcoal,  black  flux,  cyanide  of  potassium,  or 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  and  heated  in  a  reduction-tube, 
the  metal  is  reduced  and  volatilized,  condensing  in  the  form 
of  a  metallic  ring  or  mirror,  of  great  brilliancy,  and  of  a  steel- 
gray  color.  (6)  The  sublimed  metal  in  the  state  of  vapor 
has  the  odor  of  garlic. 

The  two  processes  of  sublimation  and  reduction  require  a  little 
fuller  description.  In  order  properly  to  develop  the  charac- 
teristic crystalline  appearance  of  the  sublimate  of  arsenious 
acid,  experience  has  shown  that  the  white  vapor  must  be 
received  on  a  warm  surface.  If  the  surface  is  perfectly  cold, 
the  deposit  is  apt  to  be  amorphous  and  imperfect.  The  ex- 
periment may  be  performed  either  with  the  reduction-tube, 
or  with  the  glass  disk,  as  recommended  by  Prof.  Guy.  The 
reduction-tube  should  be  composed  of  thin,  hard  German 
glass,  about  three  inches  in  length,  and  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  inside  of  the  tube  must  be  perfectly 
clean,  and  free  from  moisture.  The  powder  being  introduced, 
and  the  tube  wiped  out,  if  necessary,  it  is  first  to  be  gently 
heated  in  the  flame  of  the  spirit-lamp  a  little  distance  above 
the  contents,  after  which,  the  flame  is  to  be  directly  applied 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  until  the  sublimation  is  accom- 
plished. Dr.  Guy's  method  (Foren.  Med.,  p.  383)  consists  in 
placing  the  powder,  perfectly  dried,  in  a  narrow  glass  tube 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  having  its  mouth 
covered  over  with  a  warm  glass  slide  or  disk.  On  applying 
heat  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  a  beautiful  deposit  of  crystals 


228  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

takes  place  on  the  glass  cover.  The  flat  surface  of  the  latter 
renders  it  peculiarly  favorable  for  microscopic  examination. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  other  substances  besides 
arsenious  acid  will  undergo  sublimation  by  heat  and  will  be 
deposited  in  white  rings,  such  as  calomel,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, oxalic  acid,  and  salts  X)f  ammonia.  But  most  of  these 
substances  melt  before  subliming,  and  none  of  them  condenses 
in  the  form  of  octahedral  crystals.  It  will  be  noticed,  then,  that 
it  is  the  sublimate  composed  of  octahedral  crystals  that  is 
the  unequivocal  proof  of  the  presence  of  arsenious  acid ; 
and  the  student  will  do  well  to  familiarize  himself  with 
the  appearance  of  arsenical  sublimates,  obtained  after  the 
methods  just  described. 

The  crystals  thus  obtained,  especially  if  the  original 
quantity  is  very  minute,  are  exceedingly  small,  but  still 
perfectly  characteristic.  With  a  power  of  one  hundred  di- 
ameters, we  may  determine  the  angles  of  a  crystal  that  does 
not  exceed  one  eight-thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter ; 
and  with  a  power  of  two  hundred  and  fifty,  crystals  measuring 
only  one  fifteen-thousandth  of  an  inch  may  be  satisfactorily 
determined  (Wormley). 

The  reduction  process  consists  in  heating  the  arsenious  acid, 
along  with  some  reducing  agent,  in  a  reduction-tube:  the 
reduced  metal  rises  in  vapor,  and  is  deposited,  in  the  form  of 
a  bright,  steel-gray-colored  ring,  on  the  cool  part  of  the  tube. 
In  this  experiment,  there  are  frequently  two  rings  in  the 
tube  :  the  upper  and  longer  ring  has  a  brown  color,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  a  mixture  of  finely-divided  metallic  arsenic  and 
arsenious  acid;  the  lower  ring  is  small,  and  has  a  bright 
mirror-appearance,  like  polished  steel ;  it  consists  of  the 
pure  metal.  The  inner  surface  of  the  latter  sublimate  pre- 
sents a  bright  crystalline  appearance. 

Practically,  one  of  the  best  methods  for  effecting  the 
reduction  of  arsenious  acid,  and  one  which  is  equally  appli- 
cable for  the  sulphides  and  the  arsenites,  is  by  means  of  the 
perfectly  dry  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, — as  proposed  by  Dr. 
E.  Davy,  of  Dublin  (Chem.  News,  vol.  iii.  p.  288).  This  salt 
is  preferable  to  the  cyanide,  in  that  it  is  not  deliquescent. 
After  being  thoroughly  dried  at  a  temperature  of  212°,  it 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — REDUCTION   PROCESS.  229 

should  be  mixed  with  the  arsenious  acid,  in  the  proportion 
of  six  or  eight  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter,  and 
introduced  into  the  reduction-tube.  The  mixture  blackens 
before  fusing. 

When  the  quantity  of  the  arsenious  acid  is  extremely 
minute,  the  tube  should  be  proportionately  small.  The 
best  mode  of  procedure,  under  such  circumstances,  is  to  use 
a  thin  tube  not  over  three  inches  long  and  about  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  in  diameter.  After  introducing  the  mixture 
into  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the  latter  should  be  thoroughly 
wiped  out  with  a  piece  of  filtering-paper  properly  rolled  up: 
the  tube  should  then  be  heated  at  a  little  distance  above  the 
mixture  by  a  blowpipe  flame,  and  drawn  out  into  a  con- 
tracted neck.  After  this  has  sufficiently  cooled,  and  before 
it  is  entirely  cold,  the  heat  should  be  applied  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tube,  when  the  metallic  sublimate  will  become  very 
apparent  in  the  contracted  neck.  According  to  Prof.  Worm- 
ley,  the  one-thousandth  of  a  grain  of  arsenious  acid,  when 
treated  in  this  manner,  will  give  a  very  satisfactory  metallic 
sublimate,  which,  upon  resublimatiou,  farther  up  the  neck 
of  the  tube,  will  furnish  several  hundred  octahedral  crystals 
of  arsenious  acid,  many  of  them  measuring  one-thousandth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Although  the  metallic  crust,  obtained  in  the  manner  just 
described,  is  positive  proof  of  the  presence  of  arsenic  in  the 
original  mixture,  still,  a  witness,  on  a  trial  for  poisoning, 
would  not  be  justified  in  so  affirming,  without  proceeding 
a  step  further.  Compounds  of  mercury,  cadmium,  selenium, 
and  tellurium  may,  under  similar  circumstances,  yield  sub- 
limates. These,  however,  may  easily  be  distinguished  from 
the  arsenical  sublimate,  even  by  the  naked  eye,  though  still 
better  by  the  microscope,  which  exhibits  them  in  the  form  of 
globules  or  drops.  But  there  are  other  still  more  confirmatory 
tests:  (1)  the  arsenic  mirror  is  wholly  soluble  in  a  solution 
of  hypochlorite  of  soda ;  (2)  it  is  also  soluble  in  warm  nitric 
acid;  and  when  this  solution  is  evaporated  to  dryness  by 
heat,  and  the  residue  is  touched  by  a  drop  of  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  a  brick-red  color  is  produced,  due 
to  the  formation  of  arsenate  of  silver.  If  the  closed  end  of 


230  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  tube  be  broken  off,  and  heat  be  applied  to  the  sublimate, 
it  will  readily  volatilize,  and  the  vapor  combining  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  will  condense  in  the  octahedral  crystals 
of  arsenious  acid.  Or,  the  portion  of  the  tube  containing 
the  crust,  having  been  separated  by  the  file,  may  be  broken 
up  and  introduced  into  another  reduction-tube :  when  this 
is  properly  heated,  the  characteristic  crystalline  deposit  takes 
place. 

The  conversion  of  the  metallic  crust  into  the  octahedral 
crystals  of  arsenious  acid  by  resublimation  is  a  highly  satis- 
factory proof  of  the  presence  of  this  poison ;  but  we  may 
proceed  a  step  further,  and  dissolve  these  crystals  in  a  few 
drops  of  water,  and  subject  the  solution  to  the  liquid  tests 
(see  posf). 

It  has  been  objected  that  a  crust  of  charcoal,  or  the  em- 
ployment of  a  reduction-tube  containing  lead,  might  occa- 
sion an  error :  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  a  practiced 
eye  could  possibly  mistake  them ;  but  all  room  for  doubt 
will  certainly  be  removed  by  resubliming  the  suspected 
crust:  the  crystalline  deposit  can  occur  only  if  this  crust  is 
arsenical. 

II.  The  liquid  tests. — These  are  two  in  number,  viz.,  the 
ammonio-sulphate  of  copper,  and  the  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver. 
These  tests  should  both  be  prepared  at  the  time  they  are 
required  for  use.  The  former  is  made  by  cautiously  adding 
solution  of  ammonia  to  a  somewhat  dilute  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  until  the  precipitated  oxide  is  almost  redissolved. 
When  this  reagent  is  added  to  a  solution  of  arsenious  acid, 
it  throws  down  a  light-green,  amorphous  precipitate  of 
arsenite  of  copper,  known  as  Scheele's  green.  This  precipi- 
tate is  very  soluble  in  ammonia  and. in  free  acids.  From 
very  dilute  solutions  of  arsenious  acid,  the  precipitate  does 
not  assume  its  characteristic  color  until  it  has  stood  for  some 
time. 

The  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver  is  prepared  by  cautiously 
adding  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia  to  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  until  the  precipitated  oxide  of  silver  is  nearly  re- 
dissolved.  This  reagent  throws  down  from  a  solution  of 
arsenious  acid  a  canary-yellow  precipitate — arsenite  of  silver 


POISONING   BY   ARSENIC. — LIQUID   TESTS.  231 

— which  is  freely  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  in  nitric  and  acetic 
acids. 

The  above  liquid  tests  are  conclusive  only  when  applied 
to  a  solution  of  pure  arsenious  acid:  in  organic  solutions 
they  are  valueless  as  proof  of  the  presence  of  arsenic,  since 
certain  organic  substances  yield  with  each  of  the  liquid  tests, 
colors  similar  to  those  caused  by  arsenic.  Phosphoric  acid 
and  the  phosphates  also  give  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
a  delicate  yellow  color.  Hence  the  mere  production  of  these 
colors  is  not  of  itself  proof  of  the  presence  of  arsenic.  The 
danger  of  placing  an  undue  reliance  on  these  color  tests  is 
shown  in  the  celebrated  Donnall  case,  which  was  tried  in  Eng- 
land in  1817.  Here,  the  charge  of  poisoning  by  arsenic  was 
sustained  chiefly  by  the  results  afforded  by  the  two  liquid 
tests  upon  the  boiled  contents  of  the  stomach :  the  yellow 
and  green  precipitates  were  thrown  down  ;  but  it  was  sub- 
sequently shown  that  a  decoction  of  onions  would  produce 
a  precisely  similar  green  color  with  the  copper  test,  as  the 
one  actually  obtained  by  the  analyst.  (See  Beck's  Med. 
Jurisp.,  vol.  ii.  p.  580.) 

The  liquid  tests  can,  however,  be  easily  confirmed,  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  by  heating  either  of  the  dried  precipitates  (arsenite 
of  silver  and  arsenite  of  copper)  in  a  reduction-tube,  either 
alone,  or  with  a  reducing  agent;  a  sublimate  of  octahedral 
crystals  of  arsenious  acid  will  be  yielded  in  the  first  case,  and 
a  mirror  of  metallic  arsenic  in  the  second.  (2)  If  a  small 
quantity  of  the  blue  ammoniacal  solution  of  the  arsenic  is 
poured  over  a  crystal  of  nitrate  of  silver,  a  film  of  yellow 
arsenite  of  silver  will  appear  around  the  crystal.  The  silver 
and  copper  tests  may  thus  be  used  to  confirm  each  other. 

III.  The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  test. — Sulphuretted  hydrogen 
gas,  and  its  solution  in  water,  both  give  with  solutions  of 
arsenious  acid  slightly  acidulated,  a  bright  yellow  amorphous 
precipitate  of  tersulphide  of  arsenic,  or  orpime?it,  which  is 
soluble  in  the  alkalies,  but  insoluble  in  cold  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  only  partially  soluble  in  the  boiling  strong  acid ; 
hot  nitric  acid  dissolves  and  decomposes  it  to  arsenious  acid. 
From  very  dilute  solutions  of  the  poison,  the  precipitate  does 
not  separate  until  the  excess  of  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is 


232  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

expelled  by  heat,  or  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In  all  cases,  a 
gentle  heat  favors  the  complete  separation  of  the  precipitate. 

There  are  other  substances  besides  arsenic  which  give 
yellowish  precipitates  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  such  as 
cadmium,  selenium,  and  tin:  the  color  of  the  antimonial  pre- 
cipitate is  orange-red.  The  sulphide  of  cadmium  is  in  ap- 
pearance very  similar  to  the  sulphide  of  arsenic ;  but  they 
differ  entirely  in  that  the  cadmium-sulphide  is  soluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid  and  insoluble  in  ammonia,  while  it  is  just 
the  reverse  with  the  arsenic-sulphide.  The  bisulphide  of  tin, 
when  dried,  has  a  dull  yellow  color;  it  is  partially  soluble  in 
cold  hydrochloric  acid,  but  sparingly  soluble  in  ammonia. 
The  sulphide  of  selenium,  besides  being  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence, soon  changes  to  an  orange-red  color,  and  is  insoluble 
in  ammonia. 

The  confirmatory  proofs  of  the  sulphide  of  arsenic  are : 
(1)  when  thoroughly  dried,  and  mixed  with  dry  ferrocj-auide 
of  potassium,  black  flux,  or  cyanide  of  potassium  and  car- 
bonate of  potash,  and  heated  in  a  reduction-tube,  it  yields 
the  characteristic  sublimate  of  metallic  arsenic.  In  a  small 
reduction-tube  properly  drawn  out,  satisfactory  results  may 
be  obtained  with  a  precipitate  from  the  one-thousandth  of  a 
grain  of  arsenious  acid.  (2)  Boil  the  hydrochloric  acid  so- 
lution of  the  yellow  precipitate  with  a  strip  of  bright  copper- 
foil,  and  proceed  as  directed  for  Reinsche's  test  (see  post) :  no 
other  substance,  thus  treated,  will  yield  the  characteristic 
octahedral  crystals.  (3)  Dissolve  the  precipitate  in  a  little 
hot  nitric  acid,  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  add  a  drop  or  two 
of  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver :  it  will  yield  the  brick-red 
colored  arsenate  of  silver. 

IV.  Marsh's  test. — This  valuable  test  was  first  proposed  by 
Mr.  Marsh,  of  Woolwich,  about  the  year  1835.  The  prin- 
ciple involved  in  it  is,  that  when  an  arsenical  compound  comes 
in  contact  with  nascent  hydrogen,  the  arsenic  combines  with 
the  latter,  to  form  arsenetted  or  arsenuretted  hydrogen — a  gas 
possessing  peculiar  properties,  by  which  the  presence  of  the 
poison  may  with  certainty  be  recognized.  The  original 
Marsh's  apparatus  consists  of  a  U-shaped  glass  tube,  one  leg 
of  which  is  longer  than  the  other.  The  longer  one  is  open ; 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — MARSH'S   TEST.  233 

the  shorter  one  is  closed  by  a  stop-cock  furnished  with  a 
nozzle,  terminating  in  a  minute  bore.  Hydrogen  gas  is  gen- 
erated by  pouring  dilute  sulphuric  acid  through  the  open  end 
of  the  tube,  upon  a  fragment  of  pure  zinc;  the  gas  evolved 
gradually  accumulates  in  the  short  leg  of  the  tube,  and  es- 
capes on  opening  the  stop-cock.  If  the  arsenious  acid  be 
now  introduced  along  with  the  contents  of  the  tube,  arsenu- 
retted  hydrogen  will  be  generated,  and  will  escape  in  a  small 
jet  on  opening  the  stop-cock.  On  ignition,  it  will  yield  the 
characteristic  results.  A  cheaper  and  more  simple  form  of 
apparatus  may  be  used,  and  one  which  is  preferable  in  toxi- 
cological  investigations,  where  new  apparatus  should  be  em- 
ployed in  every  new  analysis.  It  consists  simply  of  the 
ordinary  hydrogen-bottle,  fitted  with  two  glass  tubes,  one  a 
straight  funnel-tube,  for  introducing  the  materials,  the  other 
one  bent  at  right  angles,  for  the  delivery  of  the  gas.  To  the 
latter  may  be  attached  a  drying-tube,  with  the  proper  arrange- 
ment for  burning  the  gas,  as  it  escapes. 

In  performing  this  experiment,  certain  precautions  are 
necessary.  In  the  first  place,  the  zinc  and  sulphuric  acid 
must  be  proved  to  be  free  from  contamination  with  arsenic. 
It  has  already  been  stated  that  both  of  these  substances,  as 
found  in  commerce,  are  very  apt  to  contain  arsenic  as  an 
impurity.  Secondly,  care  should  be  exercised  that  all  the 
atmospheric  air  has  time  to  escape  from  the  gas-bottle  before 
lighting  the  jet,  otherwise  the  mixture  of  the  air  and  hydro- 
gen would  occasion  an  explosion,  which  might  be  attended 
with  unpleasant  consequences.  With  these  precautions,  the 
experiment  is  performed  as  follows :  fragments  of  pure  zinc 
are  put  into  the  bottle,  and  a  mixture  of  pure  sulphuric  acid 
and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  measure  of  the  former 
to  four  of  water,  is  poured  through  the  funnel-shaped  tube; 
effervescence  immediately  takes  place  from  the  escape  of 
hydrogen  gas,  which  passes  oft'  through  the  other  bent  tube; 
this  latter  is  connected,  by  means  of  a  cork,  with  the  drying- 
tube,  which  is  filled  with  fused  chloride  of  calcium,  or  with 
cotton  moistened  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  :  the  drying- 
tube  is  connected  by  a  piece  of  india-rubber  tubing  with  the 
reduction-tube;  this  should  be  of  hard  glass,  without  lead, 


234  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  several  inches  long, 
contracted  in. two  or  three  places,  and  terminated  in  a  turned- 
up,  drawn-out  point,  for  ignition  of  the  gas.  Several  of  these 
tubes  should  be  at  hand. 

When  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  the  escape  of 
all  the  atmospheric  air,  the  jet  may  be  lighted:  it  will  burn 
with  a  scarcely-perceptible  flame,  if  it  be  pure  hydrogen  gas. 
The  purity  of  the  materials  is  next  to  be  tested  by  applying 
the  flame  of  a  large  spirit-lamp,  or  a  Bunsen-jet,  under  the 
horizontal  delivery-tube,  until  it  is  heated  to  redness,  just 
behind  one  of  the  contracted  portions:  if  no  metallic  deposit 
or  stain  occurs  in  the  contracted  part  of  the  tube,  the  mate- 
rials may  be  considered  free  from  arsenic.  Or,  if  on  holding 
a  clean,  dry,  white  porcelain  lid  over  the  ignited  jet,  so  as  to 
depress  the  flame,  no  metallic  deposit  or  spot  is  formed,  the 
same  conclusion  may  be  held. 

A  small  quantity  of  the  arsenical  solution  is  next  intro- 
duced through  the  funnel-tube :  its  decomposition  imme- 
diately commences,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  arsenetted 
hydrogen;  this  is  recognized  by  the  following  characteristics: 

1.  The  ignited  jet. — The  moment  the  arsenic  combines  with 
the  hydrogen,  an  obvious  change  is  perceived  in  the  flame, 
which  increases  in  size,  and  acquires  a  sickly  bluish  tint ; 
and,  unless  the  arsenic  is  in  very  minute  quantity,  it  evolves 
the  white  fumes  of  arsenious  acid,  and  emits  a  peculiar  alli- 
aceous odor.  If  these  fumes  be  received  into  a  short,  wide 
test-tube,  or  on  an  inverted  watch-glass,  they  will  condense 
into  a  white  powder,  which  is  sometimes  crystalline  (octa- 
hedra),  and  which  can  be  proved  to  be  arseuious  acid  by 
any  of  the  tests  already  described. 

If  the  flame  be  made  to  strike  against  a  piece  of  cold 
glass,  or  white  porcelain,  held  horizontally,  it  yields  a  de- 
posit of  pure  metallic  arsenic,  in  the  form  of  a  brilliant  steel- 
gray  or  brownish  spot.  By  changing  the  position  of  the 
cold  surface,  numerous  deposits  of  this  nature  may  be  ob- 
tained. The  exact  appearance  of  these  spots  depends  very 
much  upon  the  quantity  of  arsenic  present,  and  on  the 
character  of  the  flame.  The  jet  should  not  be  too  large, 
and  should  burn  with  a  clear,  steady  flame :  to  this  end,  the 


POISONING   BY   ARSENIC. — MARSH'S   TEST.  235 

evolution  of  gas  should  be  moderately  slow.  When  the 
flame  is  very  small  and  round,  the  surface  should  be  held 
very  near  its  base ;  but  when  the  flame  is  pointed,  or  con- 
ical, the  porcelain  should  be  held  at  about  its  upper  third. 
The  color  of  the  spots  varies:  sometimes  they  present  a 
very  brilliant  steel-gray  appearance ;  again,  they  may  be  of 
a  dark,  brownish-black  color ;  and  sometimes  they  may  even 
exhibit  a  copper  hue;  but  never  a  black,  sooty  appearance. 

These  spots  may  be  identified  as  arsenical  by  the  following 
tests:  (1)  they  are  immediately  soluble  in  a  solution  of 
hypochlorite  of  soda  or  lime;  deposits  of  antimony  (which 
most  resemble  them)  are  not  thus  soluble.  (2)  "When  touched 
with  a  drop  of  sulphide  of  ammonium  (which  instantly  dis- 
solves antimony),  they  do  not  immediately  disappear,  but 
require  some  time  for  solution.  When  the  amraoniacal  so- 
lution is  evaporated  to  dryness,  a  bright  yellow  spot  is  pro- 
duced (sulphide),  which  is  readily  soluble  in  ammonia,  and 
insoluble  in  cold  hydrochloric  acid ;  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, antimony  yields  an  orange-red  residue,  which  is  in- 
soluble in  ammonia,  but  soluble  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid. 
(3)  The  deposits  from  both  metals  are  dissolved  in  a  drop  of 
warm  nitric  acid,  and  yield  on  evaporation  white  residues. 
When,  however,  these  are  touched  with  a  drop  of  strong 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  the  arsenical  spot  assumes  a 
brick-red  color,  while  the  antimonial  spot  remains  un- 
changed. (4)  The  antimonial  spot  is  generally  darker  and 
less  lustrous  than  the  arsenical :  if,  however,  it  is  very  thin, 
it  may  present  an  appearance  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the 
arsenic  spot. 

There  are  some  other  fallacies  connected  with  this  test, 
which  deserve  a  passing  notice.  Organic  matter  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  certain  combinations  of  iron  and  zinc, 
phosphorus  and  sulphur,  may,  under  the  above  conditions, 
yield  stains  somewhat  resembling  those  of  arsenic.  But 
none  of  these  substances  will  yield  a  succession  of  deposits; 
and  none  will  yield  a  single  spot  possessing  the  characters 
above  enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  arsenical  deposit.  It 
is  to  be  remembered  that  the  evidence  of  the  presence  of 
arsenic  is  not  based  alone  upon  the  obtaining  of  a  spot,  or 


236  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

spots,  by  Marsh's  test,  but  upon  the  identification  of  these  spots, 
in  the  manner  above  described. 

The  delicacy  of  this  process  is  such,  that  one  five-thou- 
sandth of  a  grain  of  arsenious  acid  may  by  this  means  be 
detected. 

2.  Decomposition  of  the  gas  by  heat. — Berzelius  modified  the 
original  experiment  of  Marsh  by  decomposing  the  arsenetted 
hydrogen  gas  by  means  of  heat,  as  it  passes  along  the  hori- 
zontal tube.  For  this  purpose,  the  flame  of  a  large  spirit-lamp 
is  placed  under  the  tube,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on 
the  inside  of  one  of  the  contractions.  When  the  tube  be- 
comes red-hot,  a  small  quantity  of  the  arsenic  solution  is 
poured  into  the  flask  ;  as  the  resulting  arsenetted  hydrogen 
passes  through  the  red-hot  tube,  it  is  decomposed,  and  a 
bright  mirror  of  metallic  arsenic  is  deposited  in  the  con- 
tracted part  of  the  tube.  A  series  of  such  mirrors  may  be 
obtained  by  applying  the  heat  to  successive  portions  of  the 
tube.  These  deposits  are  highly  characteristic,  though  they 
may  vary  somewhat  in  color  from  a  steel-gray  to  almost 
a  copper  hue :  they  serve  as  admirable  illustrations  of  the 
presence  of  the  metal,  which  can  be  exhibited  in  court,  as  posi- 
tive proof  of  the  detection  of  the  poison.  Moreover,  they 
may  be  resublimed  into  arsenious  acid,  and  this  again  can 
be  subjected  to  the  liquid  tests. 

The  delicacy  of  this  modification  is  even  greater  than 
that  by  which  the  gas  is  burned  in  a  jet  for  the  production 
of  the  spots.  Unless  the  quantity  of  the  poison  be  exceed- 
ingly small,  it  is  always  possible  to  obtain  both  results  by 
Marsh's  process. 

The  only  fallacy  to  which  this  experiment  is  liable  is  the 
presence  of  antimony.  Antimonetted  hydrogen,  treated  as  above, 
will  give  a  deposit  of  metallic  antimony,  which  might  possi- 
bly be  mistaken  for  one  of  arsenic.  They  may,  however,  be 
distinguished  as  follows  :  since  the  antimonetted  hydrogen 
is  decomposed  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  arsenetted, 
the  deposition  of  metallic  antimony  takes  place  just  over  the 
heated  spot,  or  rather  on  both  sides  of  it,  whilst  the  arsenic 
is  always  deposited  half  an  inch  or  three-quarters  in  advance 
of  the  flame.  Again,  the  autimonial  mirror  has  usually  a 


POISONING    BY   ARSENIC. — MARSH'S    TEST.  237 

duller  black  appearance  than  the  arsenical,  although  some- 
times this  distinction  cannot  be  perceived.  Again,  there  is 
a  marked  difference  in  the  volatility  of  the  two  deposits :  if 
the  flame  be  applied  to  the  arsenic  mirror,  it  very  soon  dis- 
appears, and  condenses  farther  on  in  the  tube  in  the  charac- 
teristic octahedral  crystals ;  the  antimony  mirror  is  more 
slowly  affected,  requiring  a  higher  temperature,  and  yields 
a  white,  amorphous  deposit,  quite  near  the  point  to  which 
the  heat  was  applied.  The  deposits  of  the  two  metals  may 
be  further  distinguished,  as  before  stated,  by  the  action  of 
sulphide  of  ammonium,  hypochlorite  of  soda,  and  nitric  acid 
(ante,  p.  235). 

The  action  of  dry  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  upon  the  deposits 
of  these  two  metals  affords  a  further  ground  of  distinction. 
If  a  stream  of  this  gas  be  passed  through  a  tube  containing 
the  arsenic  crust,  and  the  crust  be  chased  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  stream  of  gas  by  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp, 
it  is  rapidly  vaporized  and  converted  into  the  yellow  ter- 
sulphide,  which  is  deposited  a  little  in  advance  of  the  flame. 
The  antimonial  crust,  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  deposits 
a  reddish-brown,  nearly  black,  tersulphide  of  antimony,  but 
much  nearer  the  flame,  and  requiring  also  a  higher  heat.  If 
the  tersulphide  of  antimony  be  exposed  to  a  slow  current  of 
dry  hydrochloric  acid  gas,  it  rapidly  disappears,  whilst  the 
tersulphide  of  arsenic,  similarly  treated,  is  unaffected.  (Pet- 
tenkofer  and  Fresenius.) 

3.  Decomposition  by  nitrate  of  silver. — The  nature  of  the  ar- 
senetted  hydrogen  may  be  further  proved  by  the  action  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  If  the  gas  be  conducted  into  a  solution  of 
this  salt,  it  blackens  immediately ;  double  decomposition  takes 
place,  resulting  in  the  production  of  arsenious  acid,  which 
remains  in  solution,  and  metallic  silver,  which  falls  as  a  black 
precipitate.  The  filtered  solution  will  contain,  besides  arseni- 
ous acid,  free  nitric  acid,  and  any  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
On  neutralizing  with  ammonia,  this  solution  will  yield  a 
yellow  precipitate  of  arseuite  of  silver  (see  p.  230).  Should 
no  nitrate  of  silver  happen  to  be  in  the  solution,  a  little  of 
that  salt,  must  be  added,  after  the  ammonia.  Again,  after 
removing  any  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver  from  the  solution 

16 


238  MANUAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

by  hydrochloric  acid,  and  filtering,  if  the  filtrate  be  treated 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  it  will  yield  the  characteristic 
yellow  precipitate  of  the  tersulphide  of  arsenic.  Or,  instead 
of  using  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  filtrate  may  be  examined 
by  Reinsch's  test  (see  post).  Or,  finally,  if  the  filtrate  be 
evaporated  to  dry  ness,  the  arsenic  will  remain  as  white  ar- 
senic acid,  which,  when  moistened  with  a  strong  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  assumes  a  brick-red  color. 

This  reaction  with  nitrate  of  silver  is  extremely  delicate  : 
according  to  "Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  291),  the 
one-hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain  of  arsenious  acid  may  be 
thus  detected. 

It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  the  mere 
production  of  a  black  color  with  nitrate  of  silver  that  furnishes 
the  proof  required,  since  several  agents  will  cause  this, — for 
example,  antimouetted  hydrogen,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  phosphuretted  hydrogen.  As  regards  the  antimonetted 
hydrogen,  the  resulting  black  precipitate  contains  the  whole 
of  the  antimony  in  combination  with  the  silver,  as  an  anti- 
monide  of  silver:  consequently,  the  filtered  solution  should 
give  none  of  the  reactions  of  arsenic. 

V.  Reinsch's  test. — In  this  process,  the  liquid  containing 
the  arsenic,  or  the  solid  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  is  boiled 
with  one-sixth  to  one-eighth  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
a  small  strip  of  bright  copper-foil  is  then  introduced.  The 
presence  of  a  minute  quantity  of  arsenic  is  indicated  by  the 
copper  immediately  becoming  tarnished  from  the  deposition 
of  metallic  arsenic  upon  its  surface.  The  color  of  the  deposit 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  arsenic  present:  if  the  quantity 
be  large,  the  film  upon  the  copper  lias  a  dark  iron-gray  tint, 
sometimes  almost  black;  this  is  apt  to  scale  off,  especially  if 
the  liquid  be  long  boiled.  If  the  arsenic  be  in  very  small 
quantity,  the  polished  copper  will  merely  acquire  a  faint 
violet  or  bluish  tint.  The  deposit  upon  the  copper  is  always 
affected  by  the  degree  of  dilution,  and  where  the  quantity  of 
water  present  is  large,  it  may  require  boiling  for  half  an  hour 
before  the  deposition  upon  the  copper  becomes  visible. 

This  reaction  is  extremely  delicate,  and  the  results  are  very 
satisfactory.  Certain  precautions  must  be  observed  to  secure 


POISONING    BY    ARSENIC. — REINSCH'S   TEST.  239 

success:  first,  the  purity  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  must  be 
certain;  this  can,  happily,  be  demonstrated  by  the  test  itself. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  boil  some  of  the  acid,  diluted  with  six 
or  eight  parts  of  pure  water,  upon  a  slip  of  copper-foil:  if 
the  latter  is  not  tarnished  after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  we  may  be  certain  of  the  absence  of  arsenic.  It  is 
also  important  that  the  copper  should  have  a  bright  surface: 
this  is  effected  by  means  of  ernory-paper.  The  purity  of  the 
copper-foil  should  likewise  be  secured.  If  the  copper,  when 
boiled  with  the  acid  liquor  containing  the  arsenic,  is  not  dis- 
solved, and  does  not  impart  a  green  color  to  the  liquid,  it 
may  be  considered  pure.  It  is  only  when  the  copper  is  dis- 
solved in  the  liquid  which  is  being  tested,  that  the  impurity 
of  the  metal  can  affect  the  result. 

According  to  Dr.  Taylor  (Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p.  261),  cop- 
per may  be  best  tested  for  arsenic  by  the  simple  method  of 
Mr.  Abel:  Add  to  pure- hydrochloric  acid,  diluted  with  six 
parts  of  water,  one  or  two  drops  of  a  weak  solution  of  per- 
chloride  or  persulphate  of  iron  :  boil  the  acid  liquid,  and 
introduce  into  it  the  copper  well  polished :  if  it  contains 
arsenic,  it  soon  becomes  tarnished;  if  pure,  it  retains  its 
brightness. 

It  is  best  not  to  employ  too  large  a  surface  of  copper  in 
the  first  instance,  but  successive  strips  should  be  introduced 
as  each  one  becomes  completely  coated.  By  this  means 
the  whole  of  the  arsenic  may  be  withdrawn  from  a  solution. 
Another  point  to  be  noticed  is,  not  to  remove  the  copper  too 
soon  from  the  boiling  liquid;  for  if  the  quantity  of  arsenic 
present  be  very  small,  it  may  require  a  considerable  time 
before  the  deposit  takes  place.  In  doubtful  cases  the  boiling 
should  continue  for  half  an  hour,  before  deciding  positively 
as  to  the  absence  of  arsenic.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
copper  be  kept  in  for  an  hour  or  longer,  it  may  acquire  a 
dingy  appearance,  from  the  action  of  the  acid  and  air  exclu- 
sively. 

Fallacies. — Various  other  metals  besides  arsenic  are  de- 
posited upon  copper  under  the  same  conditions,  viz.,  anti- 
mony, mercury,  silver,  tin,  bismuth,  gold,  platinum,  and 
palladium ;  so  also  organic  matter,  especially  if  it  contain  sulphur. 


240  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  antimonial  coating  has  usually  a  well-marked  violet  hue, 
while  the  deposits  of  mercury,  silver,  and  bismuth  have 
generally  a  bright  silver  appearance,  and  that  of  gold  a  yel- 
low color.  Under  certain  circumstances,  however,  they  may 
all  resemble  the  deposit  caused  by  arsenic.  Hence  it  would 
be  very  unsafe  to  rely  solely  upon  the  color  of  the  film,  in 
Reinsch's  test.  The  corroborative  proof  consists  in  subject- 
ing the  coated  copper-foil  to  heat,  in  a  reduction-tube.  The 
arsenic  will  volatilize,  and,  meeting  with  oxygen,  will  con- 
dense higher  up  in  the  tube  as  arsenious  acid,  recognizable 
by  the  octahedral  crystals.  The  only  other  metals  which  could 
volatilize  under  such  circumstances  are  antimony  and  mer- 
cury; but  the  sublimate  from  mercury  consists  of  spherical 
metallic  globules,  easily  distinguished  by  the  microscope;  and 
that  from  antimony,  although  white,  is  either  amorphous  or 
granular,  or  else  in  tine  acicular  crystals;  the  deposit,  more- 
over, occurs  nearer  to  the  copper,  and  requires  a  higher 
heat  for  its  production,  than  in  the  case  of  arsenic. 

Dr.  Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  274)  alludes 
to  the  fact  that  when  complex  organic  mixtures  acidified  by 
hydrochloric  acid  are  boiled  for  some  time  in  contact  with 
metallic  copper,  the  metal  will  be  coated  with  a  very  percep- 
tible stain,  and  yield  by  heat  an  amorphous  sublimate,  which 
sometimes  contains  acicular  crystals,  consisting  apparently 
of  a  compound  of  copper.  We  have  frequently  verified  the 
above  observation  in  relation  to  the  action  of  organic  matter. 
"We  have  experimented  upon  a  mixture  of  tincture  of  gel- 
semium,  chloral,  and  milk,  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  ob- 
tained a  decided  stain  upon  copper-foil,  which  might  easily  be 
mistaken  for  an  imperfect  stain  of  either  arsenic  or  antimony; 
moreover,  on  subjecting  the  copper  to  sublimation,  a  white, 
amorphous  deposit  took  place  in  the  tube.  From  what 
has  just  been  stated,  it  follows,  that  for  the  complete  verifi- 
cation of  Reiusch's  test,  in  the  case  of  arsenic,  nothing  less 
than  the  production  of  the  octahedral  crystals,  and  their  subsequent 
identification,  should  be  admitted  in  any  medico-legal  investi- 
gation. 

In  all  cases,  the  size  of  the  reduction-tube  should  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  amount  of  arsenic  examined  by  the  above 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — BLOXAM*S  METHOD.  241 

test.  If  the  coating  upon  the  copper  is  very  decided,  a 
single  slip  half  an  inch  square  will  suffice  to  give  the  charac- 
teristic crystals  by  sublimation  ;  if  the  deposit  is  very  slight, 
several  such  pieces  of  copper  should  be  used  at  once.  Some 
caution  is  to  be  observed  in  preparing  the  copper  for  sublima- 
tion. After  the  deposition  of  the  arsenic,  the  slips  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  liquid  and  washed  thoroughly  in  dis- 
tilled water,  and  then  completely  dried  by  bibulous  paper. 
Moisture  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Interferences. — Certain  substances,  if  present  in  the  arsen- 
ical solution,  may  prevent  the  deposition  of  arsenic  on  copper, 
as  a  chlorate — e.g.  chlorate  of  potassa,  binoxide  of  manganese, 
and  other  substances  that  decompose  hydrochloric  acid, 
giving  rise  to  chlorine.  Free  nitric  acid  likewise,  when 
present  in  notable  quantity,  or  when  the  solution  is  much 
concentrated,  will  act  similarly.  In  all  the  above  cases,  the 
copper  is  attacked,  and  partially  dissolved,  giving  a  bluish 
or  greenish-blue  color  to  the  solution. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  conclusion,  that  Reinsch's  method 
possesses  many  advantages :  the  facility  with  which  it  may 
be  applied,  the  fact  that  it  can  be  used  in  complex, .highly- 
colored  organic  mixtures,  and  the  complete  separation  by  it 
of  the  poison  from  such  mixtures,  entitle  it  to  the  highest 
consideration  of  the  toxicologist. 

VI.  Bloxam's  method. — The  principle  involved  here  is  the 
same  as  that  in  the  process  of  Marsh — the  formation  of 
arsenetted  hydrogen  by  the  action  of  nascent  hydrogen  on 
arsenious  acid.  Prof.  Bloxam  employs  electrolysis  as  the 
means  of  decomposing  the  water  and  liberating  hydrogen ; 
thus  dispensing  with  zinc  entirely.  The  arsenetted  hydrogen 
is  made  to  pass  through  a  horizontal  glass  tube,  in  which  it 
is  decomposed  by  heat,  as  in  Marsh's  apparatus  (see  Guy's 
Forensic  Med.,  p.  441).  This  method  has  been  found  to 
be  very  delicate  and  satisfactory.  One  precaution  is,  how- 
ever, necessary:  if  the  poison  exists  in  the  form  of  arsenic 
acid,  its  decomposition  does  not  take  place ;  it  must  first 
be  deoxidized  by  means  of  sulphurous  acid,  or  a  soluble 
sulphite. 

There  are  some  other  reagents,  of  inferior  importance,  which 


242  MANUAL   OP  TOXICOLOGY. 

may  be  used  to  detect  arsenious  acid:  these  are  lime  water, 
iodide  of  potassium,  bichromate  of  potassa,  and  sulphate  of  copper 
with  poiassa  ;  but,  as  none  of  these  are  characteristic,  they  need 
not  be  further  noticed. 

Separation  from  organic  mixtures. — As  arsenious  acid  is  only 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  and  even  less  so  in  organic  mix- 
tures, it  may  frequently  be  discovered  in  lumps,  or  particles, 
by  diluting  the  mixture  with  distilled  water  and  allowing  the 
solid  particles  to  subside, — using  a  lens,  if  necessary.  Any 
white  particles  should  be  carefully  removed,  washed  in  pure 
water,  and  then  in  ether,  to  remove  any  adhering  fat,  and 
examined  as  recommended  for  solid  arsenic  (see  p.  227). 
Some  of  the  particles  may  also  be  dissolved  in  water,  and 
subjected  to  the  liquid  tests  (see  p.  230). 

"Whether  the  poison  is  thus  discovered  or  not,  the  solids 
and  liquids  are  next  to  be  intimately  mixed,  together  with 
the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  gently  boiled  for  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes.  When  cool,  the  mixture  is  to  be  filtered 
through  muslin,  and  concentrated  by  evaporation  over  a 
water-bath.  A  portion  may  now  be  tested  by  Reinsch's  pro- 
cess, fresh  slips  of  copper  being  added,  as  long  as  they  acquire 
a  tarnish.  If  the  copper  does  not  receive  a  coating  im- 
mediately, the  boiling  should  continue  nearly  to  dry  ness, 
before  concluding  that  no  arsenic  is  present.  In  employing 
this  process,  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  the  obtaining 
of  the  characteristic  octahedral  crystals  on  subliming  the  cop- 
per strips,  that  constitutes  the  true  evidence  of  the  presence 
of  arsenic. 

If  this  method  fails  to  indicate  the  poison,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  absent,  unless  the  presence  of  some  interfering 
substance  can  be  shown.  Should  it  seem  desirable,  another 
portion  of  the  filtrate  may  be  tried  by  Marsh's  test;  and  a 
third  portion  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen:  the  resulting  sul- 
phide, when  purified,  affords  good  data  for  estimating  the 
original  quantity  of  the  poison. 

Vomited  matters. — These  are  to  be  carefully  collected,  and 
searched  for  any  particles  of  the  poison.  The  mass  is  then 
diluted  with  distilled  water  strongly  acidulated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  kept  boiling  for  about  twenty  minutes. 


ARSENIC. — EXAMINATION   OF   THE   STOMACH.  243 

After  cooling,  it  is  filtered,  the  filtrate  concentrated,  and  then 
examined  in  the  manner  described  above. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  failure  to  detect  poison  in 
the  matters  vomited  is  not,  of  itself,  conclusive  evidence  that 
the  poison  had  not  been  swallowed,  since  it  might  have  been 
absorbed  into  the  system  before  the  vomiting  occurred, 
or  even  might,  if  in  the  solid  state,  adhere  tenaciously  to 
the  walls  of  the  stomach,  and  not  be  rejected  in  the  act  of 
vomiting. 

The  stomach  audits  contents. — Before  these  are  subjected  to 
chemical  analysis,  they  should  be  carefully  examined  for  the 
presence  of  any  solid  particles  of  the  poison,  as  already 
mentioned.  The  stomach  should  be  placed  upon  a  perfectly 
clean,  large  porcelain  plate  (a  new  one  is  preferable),  and  after 
being  cut  open  through  its  smaller  curvature,  should  be  com- 
pletely spread  out  for  minute  inspection.  This  is  the  proper 
occasion,  also,  for  noticing  the  pathological  changes  of  this 
organ.  The  contents  may  now  either  be  examined  sepa- 
rately, or,  as  is  more  usual,  the  stomach  may  be  cut  up  into 
small  pieces  (using  for  this  purpose  a  new  pair  of  scissors,  or 
one  known  to  be  absolutely  clean),  and  added  to  the  contents. 
Distilled  water  should  be  added,  if  the  mass  is  too  viscid,  and 
mixed  with  about  one-eighth  of  its  volume  of  pure  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  heated  nearly  to  212°  F.,  until  the  organic 
mutters  are  completely  disintegrated.  After  cooling,  the 
mixture  is  to  be  thrown  upon  a  muslin  strainer,  and  the 
matters  upon  the  strainer  washed  several  times  with  pure 
warm  water.  The  strainer  and  its  contents  may  be  retained 
for  future  examination,  if  necessary.  The  filtrate  should 
be  concentrated  by  a  moderate  heat,  and,  after  cooling,  be 
filtered  through  paper. 

Reinsch's  test  may  now  be  applied  to  a  given  portion  of 
the  filtrate,  as  a  trial  test,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  acid 
liquid  boiling,  before  introducing  the  copper  slips :  these 
should  be  successively  added  as  long  as  they  receive  a  de- 
posit. The  copper  pieces,  after  being  thoroughly  washed 
and  dried,  are  heated  in  a  reduction-tube,  and  the  resulting 
sublimate  examined  after  the  manner  already  mentioned. 
Another  given  portion  of  the  filtrate  should  be  examined  by 


244  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

sulphuretted  hydrogen.  For  this  purpose,  a  stream  of  the 
gas  prepared  by  the  action  of  pure  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
on  pure  sulphide  of  iron  (artificial)  should  be  slowly  passed 
through  the  liquid  slightly  warmed,  for  several  hours, — in 
some  instances,  for  twenty-four  hours.  It  should  then  be 
gently  warmed,  and  allowed  to  stand  quietly  until  the  super- 
natant liquid  is  perfectly  clear.  The  precipitate  thus  obtained 
will  have,  if  arsenic  be  present,  a  yellowish  color  (not  the 
bright  yellow  of  pure  sulphide),  due  to  the  mixture  of  organic 
matter  and  free  sulphur,  which  are  always  present  in  greater 
or  less  quantity. 

It  is  a  point  of  great  importance,  in  toxicological  investi- 
gations, to  give  due  attention  to  the  nature  of  this  precipi- 
tated sulphide.  A  careless  and  hasty  conclusion  often  leads 
to  error  in  this  regard.  We  have  known  such  precipitates  to 
be  mistaken  for  those  of  metallic  sulphides  (especially  in  the 
case  of  arsenic  and  antimony)  when  they  contained  no  trace 
of  a  metal,  but  consisted  solely  of  organic  matter  and  free 
sulphur.  In  fact,  even  if  arsenic  or  antimony  be  present, 
and  the  impure  sulphide  which  is  thrown  down  be  separated 
by  filtration,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  be  again  passed 
through  the  clear  filtrate,  a  second  precipitate  will  be  formed, 
of  a  dirty  yellowish-brown  color,  composed  exclusively  of 
organic  matter  and  free  sulphur. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  certain  kinds  of  organic  matter 
will  yield,  under  such  conditions,  more  suspicious-looking 
precipitates  than  others;  but  the  fact  that  they  are  thus  pro- 
duced should  be  sufficient  to  make  us  extremely  cautious  in 
our  inferences  as  to  the  nature  of  such  a  precipitated  sulphide 
simply  from  its  color:  a  further  examination,  in  all  cases, 
becomes  necessary. 

The  precipitate  produced  by  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is 
collected  upon  a  small  filter,  washed  while  still  moist,  and 
digested  with  pure  aqua  ammonite,  which  will  readily  dissolve 
the  sulphide  of  arsenic,  and  leave  untouched  most  of  the 
organic  matter.  The  ammoniacal  solution  is  filtered,  and 
the  filtrate  carefully  evaporated  to  dryness,  at  a  moderate 
heat.  If  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  arsenic  present,  it 
will  have  a  decided  yellow  color;  but  its  true  nature  must 


ARSENIC. — SEPARATION   FROM   THE    TISSUES.  245 

be  established  by  the  methods  pointed  out  under  the  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  test  (see  ante,  p.  231).  If,  however,  the 
dried  residue  contains  only  a  minute  quantity  of  arsenic  in 
combination  with  much  organic  matter,  a  further  purification 
of  it  may  be  necessary  before  the  poison  can  be  positively 
identified.  The  method  of  procedure  will  be  described  here- 
after. 

There  are  several  other  methods  of  examination,  which 
will  be  noticed  in  the  succeeding  paragraph  under  the  head 
of  Detection  of  the  poison  in  the  tissues. 

The  intestines  and  their  contents  may  be  examined  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  above  described  for  the  stomach  and 
its  contents. 

Separation  from  the  tissues. — In  all  toxicological  investiga- 
tions, the  separation  of  a  metallic  poison  from  the  different 
organs  of  the  body  should  always  be  attempted,  inasmuch 
as  this  furnishes  incontestable  proof  of  the  actual  absorption 
of  the  poison  from  the  stomach  into  the  tissues;  provided, 
always,  the  absence  of  post-mortem  imbibition  can  be  proved 
(see  ante,  p.  40).  Moreover,  it  is  this  absorbed  portion  of  the 
poison  which  has  been  the  real  cause  of  death,  whereas  that 
portion  found  in  the  stomach  is  only  the  residue,  or  comple- 
ment, of  that  which  has  produced  the  fatal  result.  Besides, 
it  frequently  happens,  especially  when  the  dose  of  the  poison 
has  not  been  excessive,  that  all  of  it  may  have  disappeared 
from  the  stomach  before  death,  so  that  this  organ  will  furnish 
none  for  chemical  analysis;  whilst  the  different  organs  may 
still  contain  it  in  notable  quantity,  as  the  result  of  absorption. 
Absorbed  arsenic  is  readily  deposited  in  all  the  soft  tissues 
of  the  body,  and  any  of  these  may  be  examined  for  it  after 
death;  the  liver,  however,  usually  contains  the  largest  rela- 
tive amount.  The  absolute  quantity  thus  found  rarely  exceeds 
a  grain  in  weight. 

All  the  different  methods  adopted  for  the  recovery  of  ab- 
sorbed arsenic  from  the  tissues  have  reference  to  one  common 
end — the  destruction  of  the  organic  matter  before  applying 
the  usual  tests.  In  some  instances,  however,  the  poison 
may  be  obtained  by  simply  boiling  the  finely-divided  tissue 
with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  employing  Reiusch's 


246  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

method.  This  mode  will  often  suffice  to  separate  arsenic 
from  the  liver. 

The  following  are  the  most  approved  methods  of  effecting 
the  destruction  or  carbonization  of  the  organic  matters: 

1.  -By  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate  of  potash. — This  is  the 
method  of  Fresenius  and  Babo,  and  commends  itself  by  its 
simplicity,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  acid  employed  is  the 
same  as  that  used  in  Reinsch's  test.  The  solid  organic  mat- 
ter (as,  about  one-fourth  of  the  liver)  is  to  be  finely  divided, 
and  brought  to  the  consistence  of  thick  gruel,  by  mixture  with 
pure  water.  The  whole  is  then  to  be  digested  in  a  porcelain 
evaporating-dish,  over  a  water-bath,  with  an  amount  of  pure 
hydrochloric  acid  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  dry  solid  mat- 
ter present.  About  twenty  grains  of  powdered  chlorate  of 
potash  are  then  added  to  the  hot  liquid,  and  the  addition  is 
occasionally  repeated,  stirring  the  liquid,  until  the  organic 
matters  are  completely  disintegrated.  During  this  process, 
a  little  water  is  added  to  prevent  concentration  of  the  mixture. 
When  the  liquid  has  cooled,  it  is  transferred  to  a  muslin 
strainer,  the  solid  residue  washed  repeatedly  with  warm 
water,  and  the  washings  collected  separately ;  they  are  now 
concentrated  in  a  water-bath,  and,  after  cooling,  added  to  the 
original  filtrate :  the  mixed  liquids  are  then  filtered  through 
paper.  Any  arsenic  present  would  now  exist  in  the  liquid 
as  arsenic  acid. 

The  liquid  is  next  poured  into  a  flask,  and  a  few  drops 
of  a  strong  solution  of  sulphite  of  soda  are  added,  until  it 
smells  strongly  of  sulphurous  acid.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
deoxidize  the  arsenic  acid,  and  convert  it  into  arsenious  acid, 
which  latter  condition  experience  has  proved  to  be  more 
favorable  for  precipitation  by  means  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. The  flask  is  then  heated  in  a  water-bath  until  all  the 
odor  has  disappeared;  it  is  then  allowed  to  stand  in  a  cool 
place  for  several  hours,  and  any  deposit  that  forms  is  removed 
by  filtration.  The  resulting  solution  may  now  be  examined 
for  arsenic,  by  the  different  methods  already  described. 

A  given  portion  is  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
with  all  the  precautions  given  on  p.  232 ;  and  when  the  quan- 
tity of  the  poison  discovered  is  to  be  determined,  the  most 


ARSENIC.  —  SEPARATION    FROM    THE   ORGANS.  247 

scrupulous  care  is  to  be  observed.     The  precipitated  sulphide 
should  be  washed  on  the  filter,  at  first  with  water  containing 

O 

a  little  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  until  the  washings  no 
longer  contain  chlorine. 

This  precipitated  sulphide,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  con- 
tains organic  matter  and  sulphur.  It  will  also  be  mixed  with 
the  sulphides  of  other  metals  that  may  happen  to  be  present 
(antimony,  mercury,  lead,  and  copper).  For  the  purification  of 
the  precipitate,  several  methods  have  been  proposed.  The 
one  originally  described  by  Otto,  and  recommended  by 
Wormley,  is  highly  satisfactory.  The  filter  containing  the 
moist  precipitate  is  to  be  spread  out  on  a  porcelain  dish, 
stirred  first  with  distilled  water  to  the  consistence  of  a  paste, 
then  with  excess  of  pure  aqua  ammonise.  Any  sulphuret  of 
arsenic  present,  along  with  more  or  less  of  organic  matter, 
will  be  dissolved,  while  the  other  sulphides  above  mentioned 
would  remain  unchanged.  The  mixture  is  now  transferred 
to  a  small  moistened  filter,  and  the  solid  residue  washed  from 
the  spritz-bottle  with  diluted  ammonia.  The  filter  with  its 
contents  should  be  reserved  for  future  examination,  if  neces- 


The  ammoniacal  filtrate,  which  has  usually  a  dark-brown 
color,  is  now  evaporated,  in  a  small  porcelain  capsule,  to  dry- 
ness,  on  a  water-bath.  It  still  contains  organic  matter.  A 
small  portion  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  is  next  added,  and 
the  mixture  again  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  addition  of 
nitric  acid  being  repeated  until  the  moist  residue  has  a  yel- 
low color.  The  residue  is  then  moistened  with  a  few  drops 
of  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  soda,  a  small  quantity 
of  pure  carbonate  and  nitrate  'of  soda  added,  and  the  well- 
stirred  mass  cautiously  evaporated  to  dryness  ;  the  heat  is 
then  very  gradually  increased  until  the  mass  becomes  color- 
less, when  the  organic  matter  may  be  considered  entirely 
destroyed.  In  the  performance  of  this  operation,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  nitric  acid  and  the  soda  com- 
pounds employed  be  perfectly  free  from  chlorine,  the  pres- 
ence of  which  might  cause  a  portion,  or  the  whole,  of  the 
arsenic  to  be  volatilized  as  a  chloride. 

In  the  incinerated  residue  thus  obtained,  the  arsenic  would 


248  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

exist  in  the  form  of  the  arsenate  of  soda,  mixed  with  sulphate, 
nitrate,  nitrite,  and  carbonate  of  soda.  When  cool,  this 
mixture  is  dissolved  in  warm  water,  and  the  solution,  after 
filtration,  if  necessary,  strongly  acidulated  with  pure  sulphuric 
acid,  and  then  evaporated  until  dense  white  fumes  appear. 
By  this  treatment  the  carbonic,  nitrous,  and  nitric  acids  are 
entirely  expelled,  leaving  only  the  arsenate  and  sulphate  of 
soda. 

A  portion  of  the  strongly  acid  liquid  thus  obtained  may 
now  be  tested  by  Marsh's  process,  as  before  described  (see  p. 
232).  But  if  it  is  desired  to  apply  the  other  tests,  it  will  be 
requisite  to  reduce  the  arsenic  acid  to  the  state  of  arsenious 
acid,  by  the  use  of  sulphurous  acid,  or  the  sulphite  of  soda, 
in  the  manner  directed  at  page  246.  If  the  object  be  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  the  poison  present,  a  given  quan- 
tity of  the  acid  liquid  is  to  be  treated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gas,  as  already  described,  and  the  precipitated  sul- 
phide, after  thorough  washing,  dissolved  in  aqua  ammonhe, 
evaporated  carefully  to  dryness,  and  carefully  weighed. 
Every  100  parts  of  the  dried  tersulphide  correspond  to  80.48 
parts  of  arsenious  acid.  A  portion  of  the  dried  sulphide, 
when  heated  in  a  reduction-tube,  should  completely  volatilize 
without  charring,  or  leaving  any  residue;  otherwise,  it  is  not 
perfectly  pure. 

A  preferable  method  of  estimating  the  quantity  of  arseni- 
ous acid  present  in  an  organic  liquid,  according  to  Wormley 
(Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  310),  is  to  introduce  a  given 
measure  of  the  above  organic  liquid  into  an  active  Marsh's 
apparatus,  so  arranged  as  to  evolve  a  very  slow  stream  of 
gas,  and  conduct  the  gas  into  a  properly  diluted  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver.  As  already  explained,  the  whole  of  the 
arsenic  will  be  recovered  as  arsenious  acid  in  solution,  while 
the  silver  will  be  precipitated  in  the  metallic  form.  When 
the  evolved  gas  ceases  to  yield  any  further  precipitate,  the 
solution  is  filtered,  and  any  undecomposed  nitrate  of  silver 
is  precipitated  by  the  cautious  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
as  chloride  of  silver:  this  is  separated  on  a  moist  filter;  the 
filtrate  is  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  the  precipitate  dried  and  weighed. 


ARSENIC. — SEPARATION    FROM    THE    ORGANS.  249 

2.  Carbonization  by  sulphuric  acid. — Method  of  Danger  and 
Flandin. — The  organic  tissue  is  cut  up  into  fragments,  and 
mingled  with  the  liquid  matters  previously  concentrated  on 
a  water-bath,  and  the  whole  introduced  into  a  glass  tubulated 
retort,  which  is  attached  by  means  of  an  adopter  to  a  properly- 
cooled  receiver.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  is  then  poured  upon 
the  mass,  in  the  proportion  of  one-fourth  its  weight.  The 
retort,  which  should  be  about  one-third  full,  is  now  to  be 
carefully  heated  on  a  sand-bath,  until  the  black,  pasty  mass 
first  produced  becomes  dry  and  carbonaceous.  White  fumes 
of  sulphuric  acid,  highly  offensive,  are  copiously  disengaged. 
After  cooling,  the  black  mass  is  removed  from  the  retort,  first 
carefully  breaking  it  up  by  means  of  a  glass  rod,  and -is  re- 
duced to  powder  in  a  glass  mortar.  This  powder  is  moist- 
ened in  a  porcelain  capsule  with  about  one-tenth  its  weight 
of  pure  concentrated  nitric  acid,  and  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
a  water-bath  for  half  an  hour.  By  this  time  all  the  arsenic 
will  have  been  converted  into  arsenic  acid.  Warm  distilled 
water  is  now  added,  and  the  whole  thrown  upon  a  filter.  If 
the  carbonization  is  complete,  the  filtrate  is  colorless;  if  it 
still  retains  a  yellowish  tint,  it  must  be  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness,  first,  however,  adding  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid ; 
the  dry  residue  is  treated  with  pure  nitric  acid,  water  again 
added,  and  filtration  performed  a  second  time.  The  carbon 
is  washed  upon  the  filter  by  successive  applications  of  hot 
distilled  water,  and  the  filtrates  mixed  with  the  liquid  which 
first  passed  through.  This  liquor  is  very  acid,  and  contains 
a  considerable  quantity  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids ;  it  is 
next  evaporated,  first  on  a  water-bath,  afterwards  on  a  sand- 
bath,  until  the  nitrous  odor  has  entirely  disappeared.  It  is 
now  to  be  mixed  with  its  volume  of  distilled  water,  and  fil- 
tered, if  any  deposit  of  sulphate  of  lime  takes  place.  The 
liquid  is  then  in  the  proper. condition  to  be  subjected  to 
Marsh's  test.  Or,  the  solution  may  be  saturated  with  sul- 
phurous acid  gas  to  convert  the  arsenic  acid  into  arsenious 
acid,  then  heated  to  expel  the  excess  of  the  gas,  and  treated 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Or,  again,  it  may  be  examined 
by  the  process  of  Reinsch. 

The  distillate,  resulting  from  heating  the  original  material 


250  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

in  the  retort,  may  contain  some  of  the  arsenic  in  the  state  of 
chloride:  it  should,  therefore,  be  examined  for  this  compound. 
3.  From  the  fact  that  when  arsenious  acid  is  treated  with 
hydrochloric  acid  it  is  converted  into  the  terchloride,  advan- 
tage may  be  taken  to  separate  this  poison  from  the  tissues, 
or  from  any  organic  mixture,  by  this  means.  It  is  necessary 
completely  to  dry  the  tissue,  first  cut  into  pieces,  by  evap- 
oration on  a  water-bath;  then,  after  mixing  it  with  about  its 
own  weight  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  to  distill  it  on 

o  *> 

a  sand-bath  to  almost  dryness, — the  distillate  being  collected 
in  a  well-cooled  receiver.  The  residue  in  the  retort  may  be 
redistilled  with  a  fresh  portion  of  the  acid. 

The  distillate  thus  obtained  contains  the  arsenic  as  ter- 
chloride, together  with  free  hydrochloric  acid,  and  some 
organic  matter.  A  portion  of  the  distillate  may  be  examined 
by  Reinsch's  test;  other  portions,  properly  diluted,  may  be 
tested  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  by  Marsh's  method. 

Should  the  arsenic  have  existed  in  the  substance  distilled 
as  a  sulphide  (as  sometimes  happens  in  the  body  many  months 
after  death),  it  will  notvappear  in  the  distillate.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  residue  in  the  retort  may  be  treated  with 
diluted  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  occasional  addition  of 
chlorate  of  potassa,  until  the  organic  matter  is  destroyed: 
the  resulting  solution,  after  being  treated  with  sulphurous 
acid,  may  be  examined  as  above. 

The  urine. — This  liquid  may  be  concentrated  by  heat  to  a 
small  volume,  strongly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
examined  by  Reinsch's  process.  Or,  it  may  be  evaporated  to 
dryness  on  a  water-bath, the  residue  treated  with  hydrochloric 
acid  and  chlorate  of  potassa,  in  the  usual  way,  and  then  with 
sulphurous  acid  gas  :  the  resulting  liquid  can  be  employed 
for  the  usual  tests. 

The  urine  appears  to  be  the  principal  secretion  through 
which  arsenic  is  eliminated  from  the  system.  It  has  been 
detected  in  the  urine  as  late  as  the  twenty-first  day  after 
being  taken. 

The  following  resume  of  facts  bearing  practically  on  the 
detection  of  arsenic  in  the  human  body  is  taken  from  Guy's 
Forensic  Medicine,  p.  444: 


ARSENITE    OF    POTASSA. — ARSENIC   ACID.  251 

"Arsenic  may  be  detected  in  the  dead  body  after  such 
long  intervals  of  time  as  five,  seven,  ten,  or  even  fourteen 
years. 

"Arsenious  acid,  usually  found  attached  to  the  coats  of 
the  stomach  as  a  white  powder,  or  paste,  is  converted  into 
the  yellow  sulphide  by  the  sulphuretted  hj'drogen  generated 
by  putrefaction. 

"Preparations  of  arsenic  preserve  dead  animal  matter. 

"Orn'la  affirmed  that  arsenic  is  a  natural  constituent  of 
the  body  itself;  and  that  it  may  be  discovered  both  in  the 
fleshy  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  the  bones.  But  subsequent 
researches  of  himself  and  others  have  shown  that  there  was 
in  his  first  experiments  some  source  of  fallacy. 

"Arsenic,  when  contained  in  the  soil  of  cemeteries,  is 
generally,  if  not  always,  in  an  insoluble  form,  in  combination 
with  iron  or  lime. 

"Preparations  of  arsenic,  whether  taken  in  single  large 
doses,  or  in  repeated  small  ones,  are  absorbed  into  the  blood, 
and  may  be  found  in  the  textures  and  secretions;  and  they 
are  only  slowly  eliminated  from  the  body.  The  limit  usually 
stated  for  the  complete  elimination  of  arsenic  from  the  human 
body  is  three  weeks;  but  it  has  been  extended  to  a  month  by 
M.  Bonjeau  (liankiug's  Half-Yearly  Abstract,  vol.  iii.)." 

OTHER  PREPARATIONS  OF  ARSENIC. 

Arsenite  of  potassa. — This  is  the  active  principle  of  Folder's 
solution,  a  form  in  which  arsenic  is  much  used  in  medicine. 
It  contains  four  grains  of  arsenious  acid  to  the  fluidounce  of 
the  liquid.  It  may  be  readily  tested  by  any  of  the  methods 
described  for  arsenious  acid. 

Arsenic  acid. — This  acid,  though  a  powerful  poison,  is  of 
no  medico-legal  interest  except  as  being  formed  in  some 
processes  for  detecting  arsenious  acid.  It  is  a  white,  de- 
liquescent solid,  very  soluble  in  water,  not  completely  vola- 
tilized by  heat,  and  having  a  strong  acid  reaction.  It  yields  a 
metallic  sublimate  when  reduced  by  charcoal,  and  a  metallic 
deposit  on  copper  when  treated  by  Reinsch's  process;  also  a 
metallic  crust  by  Marsh's  test.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  pro- 


252  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

duces  in  it,  after  a  time,  a  yellow  precipitate ;  it  is  hastened 
by  boiling. 

Its  moat  delicate  test  is  nitrate  of  silver  in  solution,  which 
gives  a  brownish-red  precipitate — arsenate  of  silver. 

Arsenite  of  copper  (Scheele's  green). — This  is  a  fine  green 
powder,  consisting  of  one  part  of  arsenious  acid  and  two  of 
oxide  of  copper.  It  yields  distinct  crystals  of  arsenious  acid 
when  heated  in  a  reduction-tube,  and  a  residue  of  oxide  of 
copper.  It  is  soluble  both  in  ammonia  and  in  nitric  acid. 

Aceto-arsenite  of  copper  (Schweinfurt  or  Brunswick  green, 
Vienna  green,  Emerald  green). — This  pigment  is  largely  used 
for  coloring  wall-papers;  also  to  give  color  to  confectioner}', 
toys,  bonbons,  etc.,  and  to  articles  of  dress  and  millinery. 
It  is  composed  of  arsenious  acid  six  parts,  oxide  of  copper 
two  parts,  and  acetic  acid  one  part.  It  is  readily  identified 
by  heating  it  in  a  test-tube,  when  it  gives  oft'  strong  fumes 
of  acetic  acid,  depositing  crystals  of  arsenious  acid,  and 
leaving  a  residue  of  oxide  of  copper. 

Paper  or  other  material  colored  with  this  pigment  will 
readily  indicate  the  poison  by  being  dipped  in  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  aqua  ammonias:  the  material  will  be  bleached,  while 
the  solution  becomes  blue;  if  now  a  crystal  of  nitrate  of 
silver  is  dropped  into  it,  it  instantly  turns  yellow  around  its 
edges,  from  the  formation  of  the  arsenite  of  silver.  Green 
wall-paper  colored  with  this  pigment  may  at  once  be  tested 
by  applying  to  it  a  drop  of  aqua  ammonise,  which  will  pro- 
duce a  deep-blue  spot. 

As  already  mentioned,  poisoning  frequently  occurs  from 
inhaling  the  line  dust  or  powder  detached  from  walls  covered 
with  this  sort  of  green  or  yellow  paper.  Persons  employed 
in  manufacturing  artificial  leaves,  fruits,  and  flowers — chiefly 
young  women — sufter  frequently  from  this  sort  of  chronic 
poisoning,  which  may  sometimes  proceed  even  to  a  fatal 
issue. 

Among  the  effects  produced  upon  those  who  work  in 
materials  containing  arsenite  of  copper,  a  peculiar  papular 
eruption,  running  into  pustulation,  is  one  of  the  most  common. 
It  appears  about  the  nostrils,  back  of  the  ears,  on  the  bends 
of  the  elbows,  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  then  the  scrotum. 


POISONING   BY  ARSENIC. — SULPHIDES.  253 

Occasionally  the  fingers  are  affected,  when  the  nails  are  apt 
to  drop  off.  These  symptoms  disappear  on  abandoning  the 
employment. 

Sulphides  of  arsenic. — There  are  two  native  sulphides, — the 
tersulphide,  or  orpiment,  and  the  pentasulphide,  or  realgar. 
The  artificial  sulphides  are  named  orpiment,  or  yellow  arsenic, 
and  realgar,  or  red  arsenic.  Both  of  the  latter  are  employed 
in  the  arts,  as  colors.  The  pigment  called  king's  yellow,  as 
well  as  the  orpiment,  contains  arsenious  acid  in  considerable 
quantities  :  they  are  both  highly  poisonous. 

The  yellow  sulphide  is  occasionally  taken  as  a  poison;  and 
it  is  often  found  adhering  to  the  coats  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  after  death,  having  been  formed,  as  before  stated,  by 
the  union  of  arseuious  acid  with  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
generated  by  decomposition.  In  organic  mixtures,  the  sul- 
phides are  detected  by  their  characteristic  colors :  they  are 
soluble  in  ammonia,  and  from  this  solution  they  are  precipi- 
tated by  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  sulphides,  when  mixed  with  black  flux  or  jferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  and  heated,  yield  metallic  sublimates 
(see  p.  232). 

The  symptoms,  post-mortem  appearances  (except  the  yel- 
low color),  and  treatment,  in  cases  of  poisoning  from  the 
yellow  sulphide,  are  similar  to  those  already  detailed  under 
the  head  of  Arseuious  Acid. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

POISONING   BY  ANTIMONY. 

UNTIL  within  comparatively  few  years,  Antimony  has  not 
figured  largely  among  poisons.  But  latterly,  cases  of  slow 
poisoning  by  tartar  emetic  have  become  quite  frequent,  es- 
pecially in  England. 

The  only  preparations  of  Antimony  of  medico-legal  interest 
are  Tartar  Emetic  and  the  Chloride. 

17 


254  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

TARTAR  EMETIC  (Tartarized  Antimony. — Stibiated  Tartar. — 
Tarlrate  of  Antimony  and  Potassd). — Properties. — This  is  a 
double  salt,  composed  of  tartaric  acid  in  combination  with 
teroxide  of  antimony  and  protoxide  of  potassium.  It  occurs, 
when  pure,  in  large,  colorless,  octahedral  crystals,  or  as  a 
white  powder.  As  found  in  commerce,  it  occasionally  con- 
tains traces  of  arsenic.  When  heated  in  a  reduction-tube, 
over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  it  readily  blackens,  from  the 
decomposition  of  its  organic  acid,  and  is  soon  reduced  to  a 
mixture  of  carbon  and  metallic  antimony.  Heated  on  char- 
coal before  the  blowpipe,  it  is  also  reduced,  yielding  globules 
of  the  metal,  which,  when  cooled,  are  very  brittle,  and  at  the 
same  time  an  abundant  white  incrustation  of  the  oxide. 

It  is  soluble  in  about  three  parts  of  boiling,  and  fifteen  of 
cold,  water.  Its  solution  speedily  undergoes  decomposition, 
the  organic  acid  appearing  to  develop  a  filamentous  growth. 
It  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  this  liquid  precipitating  it  from  its 
aqueous  solution.  From  a  strong  solution  in  water,  it  sepa- 
rates on  evaporation  in  well-defined  tetrahedral  crystals,  or 
some  modification  of  the  cube.  Often,  both  varieties  are 
found  in  the  same  specimen.  If  the  solution  is  very  weak, 
the  deposit  is  apt  to  be  undefined.  The  best  crystals  are 
procured  from  hot  solutions  on  cooling. 

The  taste  is  generally  described  as  nauseous,  acrid,  metallic, 
or  austere.  On  some  palates,  however,  it  seems  to  produce 
very  little,  if  any,  impression.  Dr.  George  B.  Wood  (Thera- 
peutics, vol.  ii.  p.  58)  describes  the  taste  as  slightly  sweetish 
and  somewhat  styptic. 

Symptoms. — A  large  dose  of  tartar  emetic  is  usually  followed 
by  the  following  symptoms:  a  styptic,  metallic  taste  perceived 
on  swallowing;  this  is  shortly  succeeded  by  nausea,  retching, 
violent  and  incessant  vomiting,  a  sense  of  heat  in  the  throat, 
with  difficulty  of  swallowing,  great  thirst,  burning  pain  in 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  profuse  purging  of  a  watery  charac- 
ter; the  dejections  from  the  bowels,  as  well  as  the  matters 
vomited,  sometimes  contain  blood,  and  often  bile.  There 
are  severe  cramps  in  the  extremities;  a  small,  frequent  pulse ; 
great  prostration ;  a  tendency  to  syncope  ;  a  cold  skin  (some- 
times, according  to  Orfila,  an  intense  heat  of  skin) ;  and  a 


POISONING   BY  ANTIMONY. — SYMPTOMS.  255 

clammy  perspiration.  The  urine  is  generally  increased  in 
quantity,  and  is  sometimes  voided  with  pain.  According  to 
Tardieu  (Sur  PEmpoisonnement,  p.  608),  the  urine  is  scanty. 
Towards  the  close  of  fatal  cases,  it  is  apt  to  be  scanty  and 
bloody,  and  even  suppressed.  Should  the  case  terminate 
fatally,  convulsions  and  delirium  may,  in  exceptional  cases, 
precede  death,  just  as  sometimes  occurs  in  arsenical  poison- 
ing. Large  doses  occasionally  produce  insensibility,  as  one 
of  their  earliest  effects;  and  in  some  rare  instances,  after  a 
very  large  quantity  has  been  swallowed,  there  has  been  a 
total  absence  of  vomiting  and  purging  until  emetics  were 
administered.  (See  a  remarkable  case  reported  by  Dr. 
Gleaves,  in  Western  Jour,  of  Med.  and  Surg.,  Jan.  1848.) 
In  such  cases,  according  to  Orfila  (Toxicologie,  1852,  vol.  i. 
p.  626),  the  intensity  of  the  other  symptoms  is  increased. 
Husemann  (Toxicologie,  p.  853)  speaks  of  this  exceptional 
form  of  antimonial  poisoning  in  which  there  is  an  absence 
of  both  vomiting  and  purging;  the  symptoms  being  intense 
prostration,  cold,  clammy  sweat,  a  sense  of  oppression  in  the 
chest,  the  respiration  at  first  increased,  then  diminished  in 
frequency,  and  embarrassed;  a  rapid,  feeble  pulse,  afterwards 
becoming  slow,  intermittent,  and  irregular;  delirium,  uncon- 
sciousness, tremblings;  and  clonic  and  tonic  convulsions. 

Two  cases  are  recorded  by  Dr.  John  Elliotson  (Med.  Times 
and  Gaz.,  July,  1856)  in  which  convulsions  took  place.  These 
were  infants,  aged  respectively  fourteen  and  eight  months, 
and  suffering  from  inflammatory  croup.  To  the  former, 
tartar  emetic  was  administered  for  four  consecutive  days,  in 
half-grain  doses,  every  few  hours,  until  twenty-seven  grains  were 
taken  in  the  aggregate.  The  most  dangerous  prostration  suc- 
ceeded the  violent  vomiting  and  purging,  and  finally  convul- 
sions ensued,  in  which  there  was  considerable  rigidity  of  the 
limbs  and  jaws.  The  second  case  was  also  treated  with  half- 
grain  doses  of  tartar  emetic  every  hour,  until  seven  grains  had 
been  given  in  the  course  of  sixteen  hours.  In  this  case  like- 
wise, after  great  prostration,  there  were  convulsions  of  a  rigid 
character.  Both  children  ultimately  recovered.  We  think 
it  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  convulsions  in  these  cases 
were  primarily  due  to  antimony :  it  is  well  known  that  such 


256  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

convulsions  arc  apt  to  ensue  in  cases  of  rapid  exhaustion 
from  an}'  cause,  as  from  hemorrhage,  or  serous  diarrhcea. 

Another  occasional  symptom,  if  the  patient  survives  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  is  the  appearance  over  the  body  of  the 
true  pustular  eruption  which  characterizes  the  external  ap- 
plication of  tartar  emetic. 

Most  frequently,  a  single  large  dose  does  not  prove  fatal; 
the  prompt  and  abundant  vomiting  of  the  poison  preventing 
its  absorption. 

The  fact  of  the  tolerance  of  large  doses  of  tartar  emetic  in 
certain  diseased  states  of  the  human  system  is  sufficiently 
established.  Rasori,  Laennec,  and  others  have  given  it,  in 
pneumonia,  acute  bronchitis,  and  acute  rheumatism,  in  enor- 
mous quantities,  without  producing  the  usual  poisonous  symp- 
toms. This  contra-stimulant  plan,  as  it  was  named,  consisted 
in  administering  the  remedy,  in  rapidly-increasing  doses  every 
few  hours,  so  that  often  as  much  as  one  or  two  drachms  were 
taken  in  the  course  of  a  day.  If  the  first  dose  or  two  ex- 
cited nausea  and  vomiting,  the  succeeding  increased  doses 
appeared  to  allay  these  symptoms,  so  that  the  system  seemed 
speedily  to  become  accustomed  to  it. 

From  the  numerous  experiments  on  man  and  the  lower 
animals,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  while  antimony  (tartar 
emetic)  exerts  a  direct  irritant  impression  on  the  gastro- 
enteric  mucous  membrane,  it  produces  an  equally  direct 
depressant  effect  on  the  heart ;  so  that,  physiologically,  it 
might  very  properly  be  classed  among  the  cardiac  depressants. 

Fatal  dose. — The  quantity  actually  required  to  destroy  life 
is  unknown.  Several  instances  are  recorded  in  which  very 
small  doses  produced  most  violent  and  even  fatal  effects ; 
but  these  are  probably  to  be  regarded  as  exceptional  cases, 
and  as  due  rather  to  some  idiosyncrasy  of  the  patient.  Thus, 
Dr.  A.  Stille  (Ther.  and  Mat.  Med.,  ii.  346)  relates  the  case 
of  an  insane  female,  of  general  good  health,  in  whom  a 
dose  of  not  more  than  half  a  grain  occasioned  violent  vomit- 
ing and  purging,  and  a  state  closely  resembling  the  collapse 
of  cholera.  Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  389)  records  a  case  in 
which  four  grains  very  nearly  proved  fatal.  Vomiting,  purg- 
ing, and  convulsions  took  place,  followed  by  collapse,  with 


POISONING   BY   ANTIMONY. — FATAL   PERIOD.  257 

failure  of  the  heart's  action  and  coldness  of  the  skin.  Of 
thirty-seven  cases  of  tartar  emetic  poisoning  collected  by  Dr. 
Taylor,  sixteen  proved  fatal.  Of  the  fatal  cases,  the  smallest 
dose  was  in  a  child,  three-quarters  of  a  grain  ;  and  in  an  adult, 
two  grains ;  but  in  the  latter  case  the  patient  had  been  in  a 
previous  enfeebled  state  of  health.  (Guy's  Hospital  Reports, 
Oct.,  1857.) 

Dr.  C.  A.  Lee  (N.  Y.  Med.  and  Phys.  Jour.,  No.  xxx.  p. 
302)  reports  the  case  of  a  child  a  few  weeks  old,  in  which  a 
dose  of  fifteen  grains  proved  fatal.  Dr.  Recamier  (Orfila, 
Toxicol.,  1852,  i.  p.  623)  details  a  case  of  a  healthy  man,  aged 
fifty  years,  who  died  within  four  days,  after  taking  rather 
less  than  forty  grains.  Probably,  twenty  to  forty  grains  may 
be  regarded  as  the  usual  minimum  fatal  dose  for  an  adult. 

On  the  other  hand,  numerous  instances  are  recorded  of 
recovery  after  swallowing  enormous  doses — varying  from 
one  drachm  to  an  ounce.  The  last-named  quantity  was 
taken  in  the  case  reported  by  Dr.  Gleaves,  already  alluded 
to.  Vomiting  was  only  excited  by  artificial  means  an  hour 
and  a  half  after  the  poison  was  swallowed.  The  man  re- 
covered perfectly  in  about  two  weeks.  In  a  case  related 
by  Dr.  McCreery,  U.  8.  N.,  a  physician  swallowed  half  an 
ounce  of  tartar  emetic,  by  mistake  for  Rochelle  salts.  In 
about  half  an  hour,  nausea,  vomiting,  and  purging  set  in, 
followed  by  violent  cramps  of  the  legs  and  arms.  He  took 
freely  of  infusion  of  green  tea  and  tannin,  with  other  rem- 
edies. Though  very  much  prostrated,  he  recovered  com- 
pletely in  a  few  days.  (Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  Jan.,  1853.) 

Fatal  period. — Prof.  Wormley  (Micro -Chemistry  of  Poi- 
sons, p.  218)  relates  the  case  of  a  child  recovering  from 
measles,  who  died  in  an  hour  from  the  depressing  effects  of 
three-quarters  of  a  grain  of  tartar  emetic  prescribed  as  a  medi- 
cine. The  same  authority  quotes  a  case  of  Dr.  C.  Ellis  (Bos- 
ton Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1856),  in  which  an  unknown 
quantity  of  the  poison  proved  fatal  to  a  young  lady,  aged 
twenty-one  years,  in  seven  hours.  Dr.  Pollock  reports  a  case 
(Lon.  Med.  Gazette,  May,  1850)  in  which  sixty  grains  proved 
fatal  to  a  robust,  healthy  man  in  the  course  of  ten  hours. 

In  the  greater  number  of  instance*,  death  does  not  take 


258  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

place  so  rapidly,  several  days  usually  elapsing  before  the 
fatal  issue.  A  case  is  related  by  Deutsch  (Canstatt's  Jahres- 
bericht  fiir  1851,  Bd.  iv.  p.  270),  in  which  a  woman  took  by 
mistake  a  scruple  of  tartar  emetic:  she  suffered  much  from 
its  violent  action,  and  died  in  a  year,  from  the  irritant  effects 
on  the  intestinal  canal. 

Post-mortem  appearances.  —  M.  Tardieu  very  correctly  re- 
marks (loc.  cit.,  p.  611)  that  the  examination  of  the  body  in 
a  case  of  death  from  tartar  emetic  poisoning  does  not  always 
furnish  positive  data.  It  often  happens  that  we  can  dis- 
cover no  appreciable  lesion.  This  was  well  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  the  two  women  poisoned  by  Dr.  Pritchard,  as  detailed 
by  M.  Felizet  (Archives  Gen.  de  Med.,  Sept.,  1865),  who  re- 
marks that  the  chief  matter  of  scientific  interest  in  the  case 
is  that  it  affords  an  example  of  poisoning  by  tartar  emetic, 
without  leaving  any  anatomical  lesions.  This  observation, 
however,  has  reference  rather  to  a  case  of  slow  poisoning, 
in  which  the  tartar  emetic  was  administered  in  small  and 
repeated  doses. 

According  to  Tardieu  (loc.  cit.\  most  commonly,  and  espe- 
cially when  a  single  very  large  dose  has  been  taken,  tartar 
emetic  produces  n  umerous  and  extensive  lesions.  The  oesoph- 
agus is  reddened  and  sometimes  ulcerated.  The  stomach 
and  intestines  are  extensively  inflamed,  as  shown  by  a  deep 
redness,  with  softening,  of  the  mucous  membrane,  upon 
which  are  scattered  brownish-red  or  blackish  patches,  formed 
by  the  infiltration  of  blood  and  by  hypertrophy  of  the  folli- 
cles. The  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  and  small  intestines 
is  covered  with  a  blackish,  thick,  and  viscid  secretion,  some- 
times streaked  with  blood.  Occasionally  there  may  be  found 
in  the  primae  via?,  and  even  in  the  commencement  of  the  small 
intestines,  true  pustules  filled  with  pus. 

The  liver  is  generally  enlarged,  and  appears  to  have  under- 
gone a  fatty  degeneration.  In  confirmation  of  this  patho- 
logical change,  it  is  stated,  as  a  well-authenticated  fact,  that 
the  peasants  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  have  long  been 
accustomed  to  feed  their  geese  upon  the  white  oxide  of  anti- 
mony, in  order  to  fatten  them.  The  lungs  are  often  deeply 
congested :  some  cases  exhibit  a  true  apoplexy  ;  and  the  in- 


POISONING   BY   ANTIMONY. — MORBID   APPEARANCES.        259 

terior  of  the  bronchi  and  trachea  is  uniformly  reddened.  The 
brain  is  usually  more  or  less  congested,  both  in  its  membranes 
and  in  its  substance :  the  latter  presenting,  when  cut,  numer- 
ous bloody  points.  Sometimes  there  is  a  slight  serous  infil- 
tration at  the  side  of  the  brain.  The  heart  exhibits  nothing 

O 

abnormal.     The  blood  is  less  coagulated  than  in  health. 

In  Dr.  Lee's  case,  before  mentioned,  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  was  red  and  softened.  The  stomach  con- 
tained a  small  quantity  of  slimy  mucus.  The  duodenum 
was  of  a  deep-brown  color,  almost  livid,  and  contained  the 
same  sort  of  viscid  matter  as  the  stomach.  The  inflammation 
did  not  extend  into  the  large  intestines.  The  vessels  of  the 
scalp,  as  well  as  those  of  the  brain,  were  distended  with  blood. 
The  ventricles  were  half  filled  with  serum ;  and  there  was 
also  effusion  beneath  the  pia  mater. 

A  series  of  experiments  by  Dr.  Nevins,  detailed  by  Prof. 
Guy  (Forensic  Medicine,  p.  460),  exhibits  the  effects  produced 
upon  rabbits  by  small  and  repeated  doses  of  tartar  emetic. 
The  symptoms  were  loss  of  appetite,  loss  of  spirit,  and  ema- 
ciation. None  of  them  vomited ;  diarrhoea  occurred  in  three 
out  of  eight.  There  were  no  cramps;  convulsions  occurred 
in  four,  just  before  death.  Out  of  the  eleven  experimented 
upon,  five  died,  at  intervals  of  four  to  seventeen  days  after 
commencing  to  take  the  poison. 

The  post-mortem  lesions  were  congestion  of  the  liver  in  all ; 
redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  in  most  of  them ; 
ulceration  in  two;  the  small  intestines  showed  patches  of  in- 
flammation throughout  in  some;  the  solitary  glands  were 
enlarged  in  two;  they  were  of  a  yelk>w  color,  and  loaded 
with  antimony;  the  ccBcwni  and  rectum  were  nearly  always 
healthy;  the  lungs  were  generally  deeply  congested  ;  in  some 
actually  inflamed  and  hepatized;  the  air-tabes  were  of  a  bright- 
red  color;  the  brain,  heart,  and  spleen  were  healthy;  the 
kidneys  were  more  or  less  congested.  Bloody  exudations  were 
sometimes  found  in  the  cavities  of  the  chest  and  abdomen. 

The  poison  was  discovered  in  every  part  of  the  body, — 
always  in  abundance  in  the  liver,  in  less  quantity  in  the 
spleen;  earliest  in  the  tissues  of  the  stomach;  later  in  the 
kidneys  and  caecum ;  at  an  early  period  in  the  lungs.  It  was 


260  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

difficult  to  detect  it  in  the  muscles  and  in  the  blood,  but  it 
was  found  in  the  bones  as  late  as  the  thirty-first  day  after 
discontinuing  the  poison.  The  poison  was  being  constantly 
eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  commencing  very  early,  and  con- 
tinuing for  twenty-one  days  after  it  had  been  suspended. 

Treatment. — Vomiting  should  be  assisted  by  warm  muci- 
laginous drinks,  and,  if  necessary,  by  tickling  the  throat  with 
a  feather;  or  the  stomach-pump  may  be  employed.  The 
proper  antidote  is  tannin  in  some  form,  as  tincture  or  infusion 
of  cinchona,  and  infusion  of  green  tea,  or  of  galls.  After 
evacuation  of  the  stomach,  opium  may  be  given  with  ad- 
vantage. Stimulants,  both  internally  and  externally,  are 
demanded.  Any  resulting  inflammations  must  be  treated 
on  ordinary  principles. 

Chronic,  or  slow  poisoning. — Many  cases  have  recently  come 
to  light,  in  which  death  has  undoubtedly  been  occasioned 
by  small  and  repeated  doses  of  tartar  emetic.  The  symp- 
toms are  nausea,  uneasiness,  retching,  occasional  vomiting, 
diarrhoea,  with  pasty  stools ;  the  abdomen  painful  and  dis- 
tended; loss  of  appetite,  and  emaciation;  the  tongue  is 
slimy,  and  the  mouth  clammy ;  the  head  feels  full  and  heavy. 
Later,  there  is  slowness  and  loss  of  power  in  the  heart's  action; 
the  breathing  is  difficult ;  the  complexion  is  dusky ;  there  is 
stiffness  of  the  legs,  with  great  debility.  The  countenance  is 
pale  and  anxious;  there  is  a  disposition  to  sleep,  with  inability 
to  maintain  the  erect  position;  faintings;  flushing  of  the  face; 
increase  of  perspiration,  and  of  the  urinary  secretion. 

External  application. — Tartar  emetic  not  only  occasions  pus- 
tulation  when  applied  to  the  skin,  but  it  is  capable  also  of  pro- 
ducing its  general  impression  on  the  system  by  absorption 
from  this  surface.  Even  fatal  consequences  have  resulted 
from  its  application  to  abraded  surfaces.  Tardieu  (Sur  1'Em- 
poisonnement,  p.  610)  mentions  the  case  of  a  woman  who 
was  induced  by  a  quack  to  apply  to  an  open  sore  on  her  breast 
a  salve  composed  of  equal  parts  of  tartar  emetic  and  lard. 
The  unfortunate  patient  died  some  (lays  after,  with  all  the 
symptoms  of  violent  poisoning. 

Chemical  analysis. — (1)  As  a  solid. — When  moistened  with 
a  solution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  with  sulphide  of 


POISONING   BY  ANTIMONY. — TESTS.  261 

ammonium,  it  immediately  acquires  an  orange-red  color. 
This  ia  characteristic  of  a  salt  of  antimony  in  its  pure  state. 
The  action  of  heat  upon  tartar  emetic  iu  the  solid  form  has 
already  been  described  (p.  254). 

(2)  As  a  liquid. — (a)  On  slowly  evaporating  a  drop  of  the 
solution  on  a  piece  of  glass,  it  will  crystallize  in  tetrahedra, 
or  some  other  modification  of  the  cube.  If  the  solution  be 
very  dilute,  the  crystallization  is  confused.  (6)  Either  nitric, 
hydrochloric,  or  sulphuric  acid,  when  diluted  and  dropped 
into  the  solution,  throws  down  a  white  precipitate,  soluble 
in  an  excess  of  the  acid.  Nitric  acid  is  preferable  in  this 
experiment,  inasmuch  as  the  other  two  acids  precipitate 
numerous  other  metallic  substances.  This  white  precipitate 
is  easily  soluble  in  tartaric  acid,  (c)  Ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
does  not  precipitate  the  solution, — whereby  tartar  emetic  is 
distinguished  from  most  other  metallic  poisons,  (d)  When 
acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid  (one-sixth  part),  and  boiled 
in  contact  with  bright  copper-foil,  the  latter  becomes  speedily 
incrusted  with  a  violet  or  gray-colored  coating  of  metallic 
antimony,  (e)  The  solution,  containing  one-tenth  part  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  gives  a  black  coating  to  a  piece  of  pure 
fen-foil,  in  the  cold, — whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  arsenic. 
(/)  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  sulphide  of  ammonium,  throws 
down,  from  a  pure  solution,  the  characteristic  orange-red 
tersulphide  of  antimony.  This  action  is  facilitated  by  acidu- 
lating the  solution  with  hydrochloric  acid.  This  precipitate 
is  soluble  in  the  fixed  caustic  alkalies,  but  almost  entirely 
insoluble  in  ammonia  (in  which  respects  it  differs  from  sul- 
phide of  arsenic).  It  is  not  soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid ;  but  the  hot  concentrated  acid  readily  dissolves  it  with 
the  escape  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  The  resulting 
solution  (terchloride),  if  not  too  acid,  when  dropped  into  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  immediately  throws  down  a  copious, 
flaky,  white  precipitate  (the  oxychloride,  or  powder  of  Alga- 
roth)  :  this  is  quite  characteristic  of  antimony,  and  the  pre- 
cipitate may  be  identified  as  antimonial  (1)  by  its  complete 
solubility  iu  tartaric  acid,  and  (2)  by  touching  it  with  sul- 
phide of  ammonium,  which  will  immediately  impart  to  it 
an  orange-red  color.  The  white  precipitate  obtained  by 


262  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

treating  bismuth  as  above  is  not  soluble  in  tartaric  acid,  and 
is  immediately  blackened  by  sulphide  of  ammonium. 

(g)  The  galvanic  test. — This  consists  in  putting  a  drop  or 
two  of  the  solution  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid  into  a 
platinum  capsule,  or  upon  a  piece  of  platinum-foil,  and  touch- 
ing the  platinum*  through  the  liquid,  with  a  piece  of  pure 
zinc.  Metallic  antimony  is  very  soon  deposited  on  the 
platinum  surface,  at  the  point  of  contact,  as  a  black  or 
brownish  film.  The  liquid  should  then  be  poured  off,  and 
the  platinum  thoroughly  washed  in  distilled  water.  A  small 
quantity  of  sulphide  of  ammonium  poured  upon  it,  speedily 
dissolves  the  deposit  (if  antimony)  by  the  aid  of  heat ;  and 
on  evaporation  an  orange-red  sulphide  remains.  This  may, 
in  turn,  be  dissolved  by  a  few  drops  of  strong,  hot  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  the  solution,  on  being  dropped  into  water, 
will  precipitate  the  white  oxychloride  (see  p.  261).  A  modi- 
fication of  this  galvanic  test  may  be  advantageously  applied 
to  the  discovery  of  antimony  in  the  organs  (see  post). 

(h)  Marsh's  test  (antimonetted  hydrogen). — When  a  solution 
of  tartar  emetic,  or  of  any  of  the  soluble  antimonial  salts,  is 
subjected  to  Marsh's  test,  metallic  antimony  unites  with  the 
nascent  hydrogen,  and  antimonetted  hydrogen  gas  is  given  off, 
under  conditions  precisely  similar  to  those  pertaining  to  ar- 
senic (see  p.  232).  Similar  precautions  should  be  observed 
to  those  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Arsenic. 

1.  If  the  gas,  as  it  escapes  from  the  orifice  of  the  delivery- 
tube,  be  ignited,  it  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  evolving  white 
fumes  of  the  teroxide  of  antimony,  unless  the  amount  of 
the  metal  present  be  extremely  minute.  If  these  fumes  be 
received  in  a  short,  wide  test-tube,  held  just  above  the  top 
of  the  flame,  a  white  deposit  of  the  teroxide  may  be  col- 
lected :  this  deposit  is  not  distinctly  crystalline,  as  in  the  case 
of  arsenic;  when  touched  with  sulphide  of  ammonium  it  im- 
mediately acquires  an  orange-red  color.  If  a  piece  of  cold 
white  porcelain  be  held  low  down  in  the  flame,  the  metal  is 
deposited  (as  in  the  case  of  arsenic)  in  the  form  of  a  black  (or 
nearly  black)  spot,  which  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  grayish 
ring.  By  frequently  changing  the  position  of  the  porcelain, 
any  number  of  these  metallic  deposits  may  be  procured. 


POISONING    BY   ANTIMONY. — MARSH'S   TEST.  263 

The  only  other  metal  which,  under  the  above  conditions, 
will  yield  similar  spots,  is  arsenic.  A  little  attention  will, 
however,  enable  us  to  distinguish  them.  They  usually  differ 
in  their  physical  appearance, — those  from  antimony  being 
generally  dull,  resembling  soot,  while  those  from  arsenic 
usually  present  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre,  and  are  of  a  steel- 
gray  or  brownish  color.  This  distinction  is  not,  however, 
invariably  presented :  if  the  antimony  be  in  very  minute 
proportions,  and  the  spots  proportionally  small,  we  have  seen 
them  exhibit  precisely  the  appearance  of  arsenical  spots. 
They  differ,  however,  greatly  in  other  properties.  Thus,  the 
antimony  deposits  are  slowly  dissipated  by  the  flame  of  a 
spirit-lamp,  while  those  from  arsenic  are  readily  volatilized. 
Again,  the  antimony  spots  readily  dissolve  in  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  while  the  arsenical  are  but  slowly  affected  by  it. 
Moreover,  the  antimonial  solution,  if  evaporated  to  dryness, 
leaves  an  orange-red  residue,  which  is  insoluble  in  ammonia, 
but  soluble  in  strong,  hot  hydrochloric  acid  ;  whilst  that  from 
arsenic  yields,  on  evaporation,  a  yellow  residue,  which  is  solu- 
ble in  ammonia,  and  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Further- 
more, the  antimonial  spots  are  insoluble  (or  nearly  so)  in  a 
solution  of  hypochlorite  of  soda  or  lime,  wrhilst  the  arsenical 
spots  immediately  disappear,  on  being  moistened  with  the 
solution.  Nitric  acid  also  serves  to  distinguish  them  :  both 
are  dissolved  by  it;  but  on  evaporation  to  dryness,  the  arsen- 
ical residue  gives  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  a  brick-red 
stain  (arsenate  of  silver),  whilst  the  antimonial  residue  is  not 
affected  at  all  by  the  same  reagent. 

2.  If  heat  be  applied  to  the  horizontal  tube  in  Marsh's 
apparatus,  through  which  the  antimonetted  hydrogen  is 
passing,  decomposition  of  the  gas  ensues,  metallic  antimony 
being  deposited  in  the  form  of  a  dark-gray,  shining  ring.  If 
the  quantity  of  antimony  experimented  upon  is  very  small, 
the  deposit  occurs  wholly  on  the  inner  side  of  the  part  to 
which  the  flame  is  applied ;  but  when  in  larger  quantity,  the 
deposit  takes  place  on  both  sides  of  the  flame.  In  the  case  of 
arsenic  similarly  treated,  the  mirror  is  formed  always  outside, 
or  in  advance  of  the  flame. 

This  reaction  is  exceedingly  delicate:  according  to  Worm- 


264  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ley  (Micro-Chemistry  of  Poisons,  p.  229)  it  will  detect  one 
ten-thousandth  of  a  grain  of  the  teroxide.  These  metallic 
deposits  exhibit  the  same  chemical  reactions  as  those  pro- 
duced on  porcelain  by  the  ignited  gas  (p.  262). 

3.  Another  method  of  identifying  the  antimonial  mirror 
is  by  passing  dry  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  through  the 
horizontal  tube,  and  applying  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp  to 
the  mirror :  the  tersulphide  of  antimony  is  formed,  which  has 
a  dark-brown,  or  nearly  black,  color.    Under  similar  circum- 
stances, arsenic  would  form  the  yellow  tersulphide  of  this 
metal ;  but  the  antimonial  tersulphide  requires  a  higher  heat 
for  its  production,  and  it  is  deposited  much  nearer  the  flame 
of  the  lamp  than  the  arsenical. 

4.  If  the  antimonetted  hydrogen  be  passed  into  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  the  latter  (as  in  the  case  of  arsenic)  be- 
comes black ;  the  whole  of  the  antimony  is  precipitated  as 
antimonide  of  silver;  whereas,  in  the  case  of  arsenic,  metallic 
silver  alone  is  precipitated,  the  arsenic  remaining  in  solution 
as  arsenious  acid.     When  only  a  minute  trace  of  antimony 
is  present,  the  whole  of  the  precipitate  collects  in  the  lower 
end   of   the   delivery -tube,   in  the   form  of  a  black  ring 
(Wormley). 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  mere  production  of  a 
black  precipitate,  under  these  circumstances,  is  not  sufficient 
to  prove  the  presence  of  antimony,  since  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
and  other  bodies  might  occasion  similar-looking  deposits. 
The  true  character  of  the  antimonide  of  silver  may  be  shown 
by  collecting  the  deposit  on  a  filter,  washing  with  warm 
water,  and  boiling  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  in  which 
the  antimony  will  dissolve,  while  the  silver  is  insoluble. 
After  filtration,  the  solution  is  treated  with  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, which  will  yield  the  characteristic  tersulphide.  Or, 
according  to  Prof.  Hofmann  (Quar.  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  April, 
1860),  the  washed  antimouide  of  silver  may  be  boiled  with 
a  solution  of  tartaric  acid,  which  readily  dissolves  the  anti- 
mony, leaving  the  silver  untouched ;  the  solution  is  filtered 
and  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  By  either  of  these 
methods,  an  exceedingly  small  quantity  of  antimony  may  be 
recognized. 


ANTIMONY. — DETECTION   IN   ORGANIC    MIXTURES.  265 

An  additional  recommendation  of  this  process  is  that  it 
enables  the  analyst  to  detect  either  antimony  or  arsenic  in 
the  presence  of  each  other. 

In  organic  mixtures. — As  tartar  emetic  is  precipitated  by 
tannic  acid,  but  not  readily  by  albumen  or  mucus,  it  may 
generally  be  found  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  partially 
dissolved,  provided  no  antidote  has  been  administered.  In 
a  case  of  suspected  poisoning,  it  would  be  very  desirable  to 
separate  the  tartar  emetic, as  such;  although  the  detection  of 
the  presence  of  the  antimony  alone  is  usually  regarded  as 
sufficient  to  establish  the  proof  of  administration,  since  this 
is  really  the  poisonous  element.  This  separation  may  be 
conveniently  effected  by  the  process  of  dialysis,  already  de- 
scribed (see  page  113).  The  exhibition,  at  the  trial,  of  the 
j&n&oTpoison  that  had  caused  death,  as  extracted  from  the 
stomach  of  the  deceased,  is  always  very  conclusive  evidence 
with  a  jury.  Of  course,  this  same  process  may  be  employed 
to  separate  the  poison  from  suspected  food  and  drinks,  or 
from  vomited  matters  ;  but,  obviously,  it  cannot  be  used  for 
detecting  the  absorbed  poison,  in  the  tissues  or  secretions. 

The  suspected  organic  matters,  with  the  addition  of  distilled 
water,  if  necessary,  should  be  acidulated  with  tartaric  acid, 
and  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat  for  about  half  an  hour.  When 
cold,  the  liquid  should  be  strained  through  muslin,  which  is 
to  be  washed  with  distilled  water  and  pressed,  the  washings 
added  to  the  filtrate,  and  the  whole  carefully  evaporated  to 
about  one-half.  Trial  tests  may  now  be  made  with  a  portion 
of  this  liquid,  by  adding  one-tenth  of  its  bulk  of  hydrochlo- 
ric acid,  and  inserting  a  piece  of  pure  tin-foil,  in  the  cold: 
the  tin  will  receive  a  black  coating,  if  antimony  be  present. 
On  boiling  another  acidulated  portion,  and,  while  boiling, 
introducing  a  piece  of  bright  copper,  the  presence  of  anti- 
mony will  be  indicated,  as  explained  above  (page  261).  The 
remainder  of  the  liquid  should  next  be  treated  with  washed 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  which  may  be  allowed  to  pass 
through  it  slowly  for  several  hours,  or  as  long  as  any  pre- 
cipitate is  formed.  It  should  then  be  permitted  to  stand  in  a 
moderately  warm  place  for  several  hours,  to  enable  the  pre- 
cipitate to  subside.  If  antimony  is  present  in  comparatively 


266  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

large  quantity,  the  precipitate  will  have  more  or  less  of  an 
orange-red,  or  brownish-red,  color.  The  pure,  bright  orange 
red  is  seen  only  in  the  absence  of  all  organic  matter. 

When  organic  matters  are  present  (as  they  must  necessarily 
be  in  such  mixtures),  the  passing  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
for  a  length  of  time  through  these  complex  mixtures  must 
cause  a  precipitate  that  will  be  composed  largely  of  sulphur 
and  organic  matter.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  some 
peculiar  complex  organic  mixtures  sulphuretted  hydrogen — 
especially  if  passed  through  them  for  many  hours — will  de- 
termine a  reddish,  or  reddish-brown,  precipitate,  which  might 
suggest  the  suspicion  of  antimony,  even  though  this  poison 
were  not  present.  Such  a  deposit  would,  of  course,  be  com- 
posed merely  of  organic  matter  and  sulphur,  and  it  should 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  a  metallic  sulphide. 

We  have  the  authority  of  Tardieu  for  saying  that,  even 
after  the  precipitation  of  the  whole  of  the  metal  from  an 
acidulated  metallic  solution  mixed  with  organic  matters,  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  if  this  gas  be  again  passed  through 
the  filtered  liquid,  it  will  throw  down  another  colored  pre- 
cipitate. 

Certainly,  then,  in  the  search  for  antimony,  in  a  case  of 
suspected  poisoning,  the  merely  getting  a  reddish,  or  even 
orafl^re-reddisb,  precipitate  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  must 
not  be  deemed  conclusive ;  neither  will  it  suffice  further  to 
dissolve  this  precipitate  in  strong  boiling  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  to  throw  the  solution  into  water  in  order  to  obtain  the 
white,  flaky  precipitate,  supposed  to  be  so  characteristic  of 
antimony,  since,  as  we  have  frequently  observed,  just  such 
results  may  be  obtained  by  a  similar  treatment  of  the  colored 
sulphur-organic  deposits  above  alluded  to :  these  likewise  are, 
to  a  great  extent,  soluble  in  the  boiling  acid;  and  the  result- 
ing solution,  if  allowed  to  fall  into  water,  occasions  a  white 
precipitate.  Now,  although  this  sulphur-organic  precipitate 
may  not  possess  all  the  characters  of  the  real  sulphide  of  an- 
timony— such  as  would  result  from  a  pure  solution — it  does 
resemble  very  closely,  in  most  of  its  reactions,  just  such  a 
preparation  as  we  should  expect  to  n'nd  in  a  mixture  of  anti- 
mony and  organic  matters.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  insist 


ANTIMONY. — DETECTION    IN   ORGANIC    MIXTURES.  267 

emphatically  on  the  insufficiency  of  this  one  exclusive  line 
of  testing  (viz.,  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  method)  to  estab- 
lish the  proof  of  the  presence  of  antimony,  in  a  case  of  alleged 
criminal  poisoning  with  that  substance :  the  most  it  can  do 
is  to  furnish  an  indication  of  it;  but  an  indication  is  quite  a 
different  thing  from  a  prooj '.  We  do  not  wish  to  be  under- 
stood as  undervaluing  this  important  test.  In  pure  solutions, 
and  in  the  absence  of  all  organic  matters,  we  regard  the  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen  test,  followed  up  as  detailed  above,  as  one 
of  the  most  positive  and  valuable  tests  that  we  possess ;  but 
only  with  these  reservations. 

In  cases  of  poisoning  involving  the  question  of  life  and 
death,  nothing  but  the  most  absolute  proof  of  the  detection 
of  the  poison  by  the  chemist  should  be  admitted.  The  ana- 
lyst may,  perchance,  relying  upon  a  very  long  experience, 
suppose  that,  while  "he  has  satisfied  himself"  by  this 
partial  and  imperfect  method  of  testing,  others  ought  equally 
to  be  satisfied.  Surely  the  natural  advance  made  in  chemical 
science  must  detect  and  expose  such  a  fallacy.  This  very 
question  constituted  a  capital  point  in  the  defense,  at  the 
celebrated  trial  of  Mrs.  E.  G.  Wharton  for  the  alleged  poison- 
ing of  General  Ketchum,  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1872.  The 
chemist  employed  to  make  the  analysis  of  the  stomach  con- 
fined himself  exclusively  to  the  above  single  line  of  testing ; 
and  by  an  extraordinary  process  of  induction — comparing, 
with  his  eye  alone,  the  bulk  of  the  complex  precipitate  thus 
obtained  from  the  stomach  of  the  deceased,  with  the  bulk  of 
another  substance,  alleged  to  be  sulphide  of  antimony,  and 
similarly  obtained  from  another  complex  organic  material 
not  connected  with  the  deceased — he  was  led  to  infer  the 
presence  of  twenty  grains  of  tartar  emetic  in  the  stomach 
of  General  Ketchum  ! 

Prof.  A.  S.  Taylor  (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Juris.,  1873, 
p.  311),  alluding  to  this  trial,  says:  "The  symptoms,  taken 
as  a  whole,  bore  no  resemblance  to  those  observed  in  poison- 
ing with  antimony,  and,  but  for  the  alleged  discovery  of 
twenty  grains  of  tartar  emetic  in  the  stomach  after  death,  no 
suspicion  of  poisoning  would  probably  have  arisen."  "On 
examining  the  chemical  evidence,  it  appears  that  the  process 


268  MANUAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  alone  was  employed,  and  a  red- 
brown  sulphide,  resembling  that  of  antimony  in  chemical 
properties,  was  obtained.  .  .  .  No  separation  of  antimony 
in  the  metallic  state  was  made  to  corroborate  the  inference 
drawn  from  the  precipitate  produced  by  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. No  chemical  results  were  produced  in  court;  though 
twenty  grains  would  have  allowed  of  the  production  of 
metallic  antimony  in  a  few  minutes  by  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and 
platinum,  and  by  Marsh's  process.  The  evidence  that  anti- 
mony was  really  there  was  not  satisfactory  ;  and  that  twenty 
grains  were  present  in  the  stomach  was  wholly  unproved. 
.  .  .  The  jury,  upon  such  weak  evidence,  properly  acquitted 
the  prisoner." 

It  may  be  here  remarked  that,  in  a  case  of  suspected  anti- 
monial  poisoning,  the  production  of  the  metal  should  be 
rigorously  insisted  upon,  as  the  only  absolute  and  unequivo- 
cal proof;  and  this,  too,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  admit  of 
its  positive  identification  by  all  the  recognized  tests.  This 
proof  is  always  required  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  other  metal- 
lic substances,  as,  for  example,  arsenic,  mercury,  lead,  copper, 
and  zinc;  and  certainly  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be 
regarded  as  of  less  consequence  in  the  case  of  antimony, 
especially  when  it  is  remembered  with  what  facility  this 
extraction  of  the  metal  may  be  accomplished,  viz.,  by  tin-foil, 
by  copper,  by  the  galvanic  test,  by  Marsh's  process  (three 
modifications),  and  by  the  blowpipe.  Dr.  Taylor,  in  further 
commenting  upon  this  subject  (loc.  cit,  p.  314),  remarks :  "Anti- 
mony in  the  metallic  state  is  so  easily  procured  from  a  small 
quantity  of  material  by  one  or  the  other  of  the  above-men- 
tioned processes,  that  on  no  account  should  this  be  omitted. 
The  procuring  of  the  metal  may  be  made  subsidiary  to  the 
procuring  of  the  sulphide,  as  the  metal  can  be  easily  oxidized 
and  converted  into  sulphide  in  a  pure  form,  and  obtained 
entirely  free  from  organic  matter.  A  reliance  on  a  small 
quantity  of  a  colored  precipitate  from  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
alone  would  be  most  unsatisfactory  as  chemical  evidence." 

Orfila  is  very  decided  upon  this  point:  he  remarks  (Toxi- 
cologie,  1852,  vol.  i.  p.  636) :  "  What  difference  does  it  make 
whether  the  autimonial  preparation  occurs  in  soluble  or  in 


POISONING   BY   ANTIMONY. — OBTAINING   THE   METAL.       269 

insoluble  matters?  The  process  should  always  be  completed 
by  the  separation  of  the  metallic  antimony ;  and  when  this  is 
obtained,  it  can  easily  be  converted  into  the  sulphide." 
Again,  when  remarking  on  the  impossibility  of  procuring 
tartar  emetic  as  such,  after  absorption,  from  the  organs,  and 
more  especially  from  the  liver,  he  says  (p.  637),  "we  can 
obtain  the  metal  from  at  least  a  portion  of  what  has  been 
absorbed."  Once  more  (p.  638) :  "  The  extraction  of  metallic 
antimony  from  the  viscera,  or  the  urine,  of  persons  who  had 
not  been  using  any  antimonial  preparation  medicinally,  is 
an  incontestable  proof  of  poisoning." 

Tardieu  is  equally  emphatic  on  the  necessity  of  obtaining 
the  metallic  proof  of  antimony,  in  medico-legal  researches. 
He  says  (Sur  I'Empoisonnement,  p.  619),  after  mentioning 
the  two  methods  of  getting  rid  of  the  organic  matters,  viz., 
by  carbonization  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  by  hydrochloric 
acid  and  chlorate  of  potassa,  "  Finally,  we  complete  the  in- 
dications obtained  from  the  residue  by  introducing  a  portion 
of  the  liquid  into  a  Marsh's  apparatus"  (of  course  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  the  metal). 

When  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  the  precise  quantity  of  the 
poison  found  either  in  organic  mixtures,  or  in  the  tissues  of 
the  body,  the  crude  sulphide,  procured  in  the  manner  above 
indicated  from  a  given  portion  of  the  material,  must  first  be 
brought  to  a  state  of  absolute  purity  (see  ante,  ARSENIC,  p. 
247),  and  then,  after  thorough  drying,  be  accurately  weighed. 
Every  100  parts  by  weight  of  the  pure  tersulphide  of  anti- 
mony correspond  to  85.74  of  the  teroxide,  or  202.85  parts 
of  crystallized  tartar  emetic. 

The  purification  of  the  sulphide  may  be  conveniently  ef- 
fected (Wormley,  Micro-Chemistry  of  Poisons,  p.  234)  by 
washing  the  precipitate  and  transferring  it  to  a  thin  porcelain 
dish,  treating  it  with  a  few  drops  of  concentrated  nitric  acid, 
and  cautiously  evaporating  it  to  dryness ;  the  operation  being 
repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  organic  matter  is  well  car- 
bonized. Any  antimony  present  will  now  exist  as  antimonic 
acid.  The  residue  is  then  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  a 
strong  solution  of  potassa,  evaporated  to  dryness  at  a  mod- 
erate heat,  and  the  dry  residue  very  gradually  heated  to 

18 


270  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

fusion.  The  cooled  mass  is  stirred  with  a  little  water,  the 
mixture  acidulated  with  tartaric  acid,  then  boiled  for  some 
minutes,  and  the  solution  filtered.  The  whole  of  the  anti- 
mony will  now  be  present  in  the  filtrate,  which,  if  the  opera- 
tions have  been  conducted  with  care,  will  be  perfectly  color- 
less. This  solution,  slightly  acidified  with  pure  hydrochloric 
acid,  is  to  be  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  as  already 
described  (p.  247).  The  product  is  the  pure  sulphide,  which, 
when  properly  dried  and  weighed,  will  afford  the  data  re- 
quired. 

The  above  authority  states  that  by  this  method  the  sul- 
phide of  antimony  produced  from  the  one-hundredth  of  a 
grain  of  the  teroxide  of  the  metal  may  be  recovered  from  a 
very  complex  organic  mixture,  without  any  apparent  loss. 
Should  the  final  tartaric  acid  solution  prove  to  be  colored, 
then,  instead  of  treating  it  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  it 
may  be  put  into  a  Marsh's  apparatus,  and  the  resulting  anti- 
monetted  hydrogen  be  received  into  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver;  the  washed  black  precipitate  of  antimonide  of  silver 
is  boiled  with  tartaric  acid,  and  the  solution  filtered,  and 
treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  as  above. 

In  the  tissues. — As  already  mentioned,  antimony,  when 
swallowed  into  the  stomach,  speedily  passes  into  the  circula- 
tion, whence  it  is  soon  deposited  in  the  various  tissues  and 
organs  of  the  body.  Of  these,  the  liver  and  kidneys  gener- 
ally contain  the  largest  amount  of  the  absorbed  poison.  A 
weighed  portion  of  the  liver  (about  one-quarter)  should  be 
cut  up  into  fine  pieces,  and  boiled  in  pure  water  acidulated 
with  one-sixth  of  hydrochloric  acid.  After  some  time,  a 
trial  test  may  be  made  with  a  slip  of  pure  copper,  allowing 
sufficient  time  for  any  deposit  to  take  place.  This  deposit 
should  be  verified  in  the  manner  pointed  out  on  page  240. 
On  heating  one  or  more  of  these  dried  copper  slips  in  a  clean, 
dry  reduction-tube,  there  will  be  a  white  sublimate  deposited 
in  the  cool  portion  of  the  tube.  This  is  not  composed  of 
octahedral  crystals,  as  is  the  case  with  arsenic  (see  ARSENIC, 
Reinsch's  test,  p.  238),  but  will  be  found  to  be  either  granular, 
or  composed  of  very  fine  acicular  crystals  (Millar's  Inorganic 
Chemistry,  p.  602).  Mercury,  under  similar  circumstances,  is 


POISONING   BY  ANTIMONY. — IN  THE  TISSUES.  271 

deposited  in  minute  metallic  globules,  easily  recognized  by 
means  of  a  magnifier. 

The  true  nature  of  this  antimonial  deposit  may  be  shown, 
as  first  advised  by  "Watson,  by  boiling  the  coated  copper  in 
a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  potassa,  the  metal  being  occasion- 
ally withdrawn  from  the  liquid  and  exposed  to  the  air  to 
favor  the  oxidation  of  the  antimony,  when,  after  a  time,  the 
deposit  will  be  entirely  dissolved  as  antimoniate  of  potash. 
On  now  removing  the  copper-foil,  acidulating  the  liquid  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  concentrating  by  evaporation,  and  treating 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the  pentasulphide  of  antimony 
will  be  precipitated  of  an  orange-red  color.  The  whole  of 
the  antimony  may  be  thus  removed,  by  using  successive  slips 
of  copper. 

Another  mode  of  detecting  antimony  when  in  very  minute 
quantity  in  the  organs,  is  by  a  modification  of  the  galvanic 
test  (described  on  page  262),  as  recommended  by  Prof.  Tay- 
lor (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p.  314).  Coil  a 
portion  of  pure  zinc-foil  around  a  portion  of  clean  platinum- 
foil,  and  introduce  the  two  metals  into  the  hydrochloric  acid 
decoction  of  the  tissues,  just  sufficiently  dilute  to  prevent  too 
violent  an  action  on  the  zinc.  Warm  the  organic  liquid,  and 
suspend  the  coils  in  it.  Sooner  or  later,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  antimony  present,  the  platinum  will  be  coated 
with  an  adhering  black  powder  of  metallic  antimony.  Wash 
the  platinum-foil,  and  digest  it  in  strong  nitric  acid.  So  soon 
as  the  black  deposit  of  antimony  is  dissolved  from  its  surface, 
the  platinum  should  be  removed.  Add  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid,  and  evaporate  to  dryness.  The  residue  redissolved  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  solution  diluted  and  treated  with 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  will  yield  the  pure  sulphide;  or  the 
black  deposit  on  the  platinum  may  be  dissolved  off  by  sul- 
phide of  ammonium  (see  p.  26:?). 

The  absorbed  antimony  may  also  be  extracted  from  the 
tissues  by  means  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate  of  potassa, 
as  recommended  for  Arsenic  (p.  246).  In  the  case  of  anti- 
mony, however,  there  is  no  occasion  to  employ  sulphurous 
acid  or  a  sulphide.  The  precipitated  sulphide  should  be 
purified  as  directed  on  page  269. 


272  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  urine  should  always  be  examined  for  absorbed  anti- 
mony. The  elimination  of  this  metal  by  the  kidneys  com- 
mences very  soon  after  it  has  been  taken,  and  continues  for 
some  time  after  it  has  been  discontinued  (see  p.  260).  The 
urine  should  be  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness,  when  it  may 
either  be  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  chlorate  of  po- 
tassa  (see  p.  246),  and  the  antimony  procured  as  a  sulphide; 
or  it  may  be  boiled  with  water  and  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
tested  by  the  copper,  the  tin,  and  the  galvanic  test,  and  by 
Marsh's  process  ;  or  it  may  be  carbonized  by  sulphuric  acid 
and  heat,  and  the  antimony  extracted  as  mentioned,  under 
the  head  of  ARSENIC. 

CHLORIDE,  OR  BUTTER  OF  ANTIMONY. — This  is  a  strong 
corrosive  poison,  and  has  caused  death  in  several  instances. 
Its  symptoms  and  post-mortem  appearances  resemble  those 
produced  by  strong  hydrochloric  acid.  When  thrown  into 
water,  it  produces  a  copious,  white,  flaky  precipitate,  by  which 
it  is  readily  identified  :  when  this  is  touched  with  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  it  assumes  an  orange-red  color.  The  clear  liquid 
is  proved  to  contain  hydrochloric  acid,  by  the  addition  of 
nitrate  of  silver. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

POISONING    BY    MERCURY. 

IN  the  metallic  state,  mercury  is  not  regarded  as  a  poison. 
It  has  frequently  been  administered  in  large  quantities  by 
physicians  in  the  treatment  of  constipation,  in  which  affection 
it  is  supposed  to  act  remedially  by  virtue  of  its  gravity  and 
liquid  form — the  metal  passing  rapidly  through  the  bowels. 
The  vapor  of  mercury  is  very  poisonous  in  its  effects.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  this  vapor  passes  off  from  the  metal  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  so  that  persons  exposed  to  breathing 
it  become  speedily  affected  with  mercurial  salivation,  or  pty- 
alism.  A  noted  instance  of  this  fact  is  afforded  in  the  case 


POISONING   BY   MERCURY. — CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE.        273 

of  the  British  ship  Triumph,  in  the  year  1809,  which  had 
received  on  board  from  a  Spanish  wreck  a  quantity  of  quick- 
silver contained  in  leather  bags.  In  consequence  of  the 
defective  storage  of  this  cargo,  some  of  the  bags  were  broken, 
and  the  liquid  mercury  escaped  into  the  hold  of  the  ship. 
The  effect  was  that  in  a  very  short  time  every  living  creature 
on  board  became  salivated;  even  the  lower  animals,  as  cows, 
horses,  and  poultry,  were  thus  affected,  and  many  died. 

Artisans  who  work  in  this  metal,  such  as  smelters  of  the 
ores,  looking-glass  platers,  water-gilders,  and  barometer- 
makers,  are  very  liable  to  become  poisoned  by  the  fumes. 
The  symptoms  of  this  sort  of  poisoning  sometimes  commence 
suddenly  and  at  other  times  come  on  gradually ;  and  they  may 
or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  salivation.  The  general  mor- 
bid condition  thus  induced  is  termed  mercurial  fremors,  shaking 
palsy,  and  tremblement  mercuriel.  The  upper  extremities  are 
commonly  first  affected,  and  then,  by  degrees,  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body.  There  is  a  general  unsteadiness  of  motion  in 
the  arms  and  legs,  so  that  the  patient  cannot  grasp  any  object 
or  plant  his  foot  firmly  on  the  ground.  In  bad  cases,  he 
cannot  either  speak  or  masticate  his  food.  If  the  disorder 
is  not  checked,  it  proceeds  to  a  fatal  termination,  attended 
with  a  loss  of  memory,  insomnia,  and  delirium.  Another 
curious  symptom,  not  generally  recognized,  although  very 
constantly  present,  is  a  brittle  state  of  the  teeth,  causing  them 
to  chip.  (Guy's  Forensic  Medicine,  1868,  p.  474.) 

The  proper  preventive  treatment  of  this  affection  consists 
in  cleanliness  and  good  ventilation,  together  with  the  free 
use  internally  of  albumen  in  the  form  of  white  of  eggs. 

All  the  compounds  of  mercury  are  more  or  less  poisonous ; 
but  the  one  of  most  medico-legal  importance  is  corrosive 
sublimate. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE  (Protochloride  of  Mercury}. — This  salt 
was  formerly  named  bichloride  of  mercury.  The  difference  in 
the  nomenclature  arises  from  the  circumstance  that  the  chem- 
ical equivalent  of  mercury  was  formerly  taken  as  200;  whereas 
at  present  100  is  regarded  as  its  true  equivalent.  According 
to  this  latter  view,  calomel  must  be  considered  as  a  subchloride. 


274  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

Properties. — It  occurs  either  in  heavy,  semi-transparent, 
crystalline  masses,  or  as  a  white,  amorphous  powder.  It  has 
a  peculiar,  nauseous,  styptic  taste ;  it  is  soluble  in  twenty 
parts  of  cold  and  in  two  parts  of  boiling  water.  It  is  still 
more  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether :  the  latter  solvent  is  em- 
ployed to  separate  it  from  the  aqueous  solution. 

Symptoms. — These  generally  come  on  immediately  or  very 
soon  after  the  poison  is  taken.  A  nauseous,  metallic  taste 
is  perceived  in  the  act  of  swallowing.  There  is  a  sense  of 
heat  or  constriction  in  the  mouth  and  throat;  nausea,  and 
violent  retching ;  vomiting  of  matters  frequently  tinged  with 
bile  and  blood  ;  pain  in  the  abdomen,  which  usually  is  swol- 
len, and  tender  to  the  touch;  severe  purging,  sometimes  of 
bloody  matters,  accompanied  with  tenesmus,  as  in  dysentery  ; 
great  anxiety ;  flushed  and  swollen  countenance,  though 
sometimes  it  is  pale  and  anxious.  The  pulse  is  small,  fre- 
quent, and  irregular,  and  is  scarcely  perceptible  when  the 
symptoms  become  aggravated.  The  tongue  is  white  and 
shriveled;  the  skin  cold  and  clammy;  the  breathing  diffi- 
cult; intense  thirst;  scanty  or  suppressed  urine;  cramps  of 
the  extremities;  stupor,  fainting,  convulsions,  and  death. 
The  external  parts  of  the  mouth  are  found  to  be  swollen,  and 
often  present  a  white  appearance,  as  if  the  cavity  had  been 
washed  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver;  the  lips  are  often 
swollen.  In  cases  which  do  not  prove  rapidly  fatal,  salivation 
is  usually  superadded,  as  well  as  the  painful  train  of  nervous 
symptoms  caused  by  the  specific  impression  of  mercury  on 
the  system. 

There  are  occasional  exceptions  to  some  of  the  above- 
mentioned  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  corrosive  sublimate : 
thus,  there  may  be  an  absence  of  abdominal  pains,  and  also 
of  vomiting  and  purging;  and  cases  are  reported  in  which 
the  pulse  underwent  no  change  until  just  before  death.  In 
some  instances  the  symptoms  partially  remit. 

This  poison  differs  from  arsenic,  according  to  Dr.  Taylor 
(On  Poisons,  p.  399) :  1,  in  having  a  well-marked  taste ;  2,  in 
producing  violent  symptoms  in  a  few  minutes;  3,  the  evacu- 
ations are  more  frequently  mingled  with  blood.  If  the  pa- 
tient survive  several  days,  the  symptoms  resemble  those  of 


MERCURY. — CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. — SYMPTOMS.          275 

dysentery, — violent  straining,  and  shreds  of  bloody  mucus 
in  the  discharges  from  the  bowels  being  frequently  noticed. 

The  external  application  of  corrosive  sublimate  has  some- 
times been  followed  by  fatal  consequences;  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  in  such  cases  both  the  symptoms  and  the 
post-mortem  lesions  resemble  very  closely  those  attendant 
upon  an  ordinary  case  of  poisoning  by  swallowing. 

Dr.  Vidal  (Gazette  des  Hopitaux,  July,  1864)  reports  a  case 
of  a  woman  aged  twenty-eight  years,  who  accidentally  had 
applied  to  the  surface  of  her  body  the  acid  nitrate  of  mercury 
instead  of  a  liniment.  Besides  intense  inflammation  of  the 
skin,  there  were  several  large  eschars  upon  different  parts  of 
the  body;  there  was  bilious  vomiting,  which  was  afterwards 
tinged  with  blood,  abundant  diarrhoea  of  a  dysenteric  char- 
acter, cramps,  extreme  anxiety,  great  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
suppression  of  urine,  swollen  and  bloody  gums,  along  with  a 
bluish  line  at  their  junction  with  the  teeth.  Nervous  symptoms 
appeared  on  the  sixth  day,  together  with  extreme  feebleness ; 
death  occurred  on  the  ninth  day.  On  examination,  the  in- 
terior of  the  stomach  was  found  reddened,  the  vessels  injected, 
and  there  were  ecchymosed  spots.  A  similar  appearance  was 
observed  under  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bladder  and  throughout 
nearly  the  whole  intestine.  The  blood  was  black  and  fluid. 
The  microscopic  examination  of  the  kidneys  disclosed  con- 
siderable injection  of  the  parenchyma,  especially  around 
the  Malpighian  bodies ;  the  epithelial  cells  were  deformed, 
granular,  and  partially  destroyed.  M.  Flandiu,  by  chemical 
analysis,  obtained  a  sensible  quantity  of  mercury  from  the 
liver,  but  not  from  the  other  organs. 

Other  cases  of  fatal  result  from  the  application  of  corrosive 
sublimate  are  on  record.  In  one,  the  subject  was  a  child, 
who  died  in  about  a  week,  after  suffering  the  severest  con- 
stitutional effects.  In  two  others,  also  children,  aged  respect- 
ively seven  and  eleven  years,  an  ointment  composed  of  two 
drachms  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  an  ounce  of  tallow  was 
rubbed  upon  the  scalp  for  the  treatment  of  porrigo  favosa. 
Excessive  suffering  immediately  ensued,  and  in  forty  minutes 
the  children  were  completely  delirious.  They  vomited  contin- 
ually a  green-colored  matter,  and  had  great  pain  in  the  bowels, 


276  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

with  diarrhoea  and  bloody  stools.  In  the  youngest,  there  was 
complete  suppression  of  urine.  Death  occurred  in  one  on 
the  seventh,  and  in  the  other  on  the  ninth  day.  There  was 
no  ptyalisra.  (Wharton  and  Stille,  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  vol. 
ii.  p.  407.) 

A  case  of  fatal  poisoning  by  the  external  application  of 
corrosive  sublimate  is  reported  in  the  London  Chemist  and 
Druggist,  Sept.  15,  1871.  For  a  child  nine  years  of  age  suf- 
fering from  ringworm  of  the  scalp,  a  lotion  containing  two 
grains  of  the  salt  to  a  drachm  of  alcohol  was  prescribed,  as 
an  application  to  the  shaven  scalp,  by  means  of  a  brush. 
This  is  stated  by  the  physician  to  be  the  formula  given  by 
Dr.  Tilbury  Fox.  The  application  at  first  gave  no  pain, 
but  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  the  child  suffered  greatly, 
the  head  and  neck  being  also  much  swollen.  The  pain  and 
swelling  continued  to  increase  in  spite  of  every  effort  to 
check  it,  and  the  child  died  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  Only 
a  single  application  was  made.  According  to  Dr.  Fox,  the 
lotion  generally  produces  blistering  of  the  skin,  which  is  the 
design  in  using  it,  but  it  is  not  absorbed.  In  the  present 
instance,  however,  absorption  of  the  poison,  unfortunately, 
took  place,  and  with  fatal  effect. 

Fatal  dose. — The  smallest  dose  reported  to  have  destroyed 
life  is  three  grains.  Dr.  Taylor  considers  that  under  favor- 
able circumstances  from  three  to  five  grains,  or  even  less, 
would  destroy  an  adult  (On  Poisons,  p.  412).  Very  large 
doses  have  been  taken  with  impunity,  having  been  speedily 
vomited,  or  neutralized  by  antidotes  promptly  exhibited. 

Fatal  period. — The  shortest  fatal  period  on  record  is  that 
of  a  case  reported  to  Dr.  Taylor,  in  which  death  occurred 
in  less  than  half  an  hour,  from  an  unknown  amount  of  the 
poison.  Some  cases  prove  fatal  within  three  or  four  hours; 
but  generally  life  is  protracted  from  one  to  five  days. 

In  a  summary  of  nine  cases  given  by  Prof.  Guy  (Forensic 
Med.,  1868,  p.  475),  about  half  the  number  died  in  less  than 
twelve  hours,  and  the  remaining  half  in  a  period  varying 
from  three  to  eleven  days.  In  the  case  of  this  poison,  as 
with  arsenic,  the  fatal  period  is  very  variable. 

Mortality. — More  than  half  the  cases. 


COKROSIVE    SUBLIMATE. — MORBID    APPEARANCES.  277 

Treatment. — If  free  vomiting  has  not  taken  place,  the  evac- 
uation of  the  stomach  should  be  aided  by  warm  diluent  drinks. 
The  best  antidote  is  albumen,  as  found  in  eggs.  This  decom- 
poses the  mercurial  salt,  forming  an  insoluble  inert  com- 
pound ;  but  this  is  redissolved  by  a  large  excess  of  albumen. 
The  white  of  one  egg  is  generally  supposed  to  be  sufficient 
to  neutralize  four  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate.  In  the 
absence  of  eggs,  gluten,  or  wheat  flour  made  up  into  paste, 
may  be  employed.  The  free  use  of  milk  is  also  recom- 
mended. 

The  early  and  free  use  of  albumen  is  nearly  always  at- 
tended with  success.  Various  other  antidotes  have  been 
recommended  at  different  times,  such  as  the  protosulphide  of 
iron,  iron-filings,  a  mixture  of  gold-dust  and  iron-filings,  as  recom- 
mended by  Dr.  Buckler,  of  Baltimore,  protochloride  of  tin,  etc. 
None  of  these,  however,  can  compare  in  value  with  albumen, 
which  has  stood  the  test  of  many  years'  experience. 

Post-mortem,  appearances. — The  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  throat,  and  gullet  is  often  found  softened,  of  a  white 
or  grayish  color,  and  sometimes  inflamed.  The  action  of 
this  poison  upon  the  stomach  and  bowels  is  generally  more 
decided  than  that  of  arsenic.  The  coats  of  the  stomach 
may  be  found  more  or  less  corroded  and  softened,  presenting 
a  slate-gray  color,  which  is  by  some  ascribed  to  the  deposit 
of  fine  reduced  mercury.  Sometimes  dark  gangrenous  spots 
are  observed.  Similar  appearances  have  been  seen  in  the 
large  and  small  intestines,  especially  in  the  csecum.  Sir  R. 
Christison  mentions  a  case  where  the  patient  survived  thirty- 
one  hours,  in  which  there  was  perforation  of  the  stomach. 
The  urinary  organs  are  generally  found  greatly  inflamed,  the 
bladder  much  contracted  and  empty,  and  the  kidneys  highly 
congested,  especially  about  the  Malpighian  bodies,  and  the 
epithelial  cells  deformed,  granular,  and  partially  destroyed. 

In  chronic  or  slow  poisoning  with  corrosive  sublimate,  the 
following  symptoms  are  generally  observed  :  a  coppery  taste 
in  the  mouth,  loss  of  appetite,  a  fetid  breath,  tenderness  of 
gums,  pains  in  the  stomach  and  bowels,  nausea,  inflammation 
and  ulceration  of  the  salivary  glands,  swelling  of  the  tongue, 
increased  flow  of  the  saliva,  a  quick  pulse,  hot  skin,  great 


278  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

muscular  debility,  and  emaciation.  A  bluish  line  is  fre- 
quently observed  around  the  edges  of  the  gums,  like  that 
occasioned  by  lead-poisoning. 

It  may  be  well  to  remember  that  salivation  is  not  an  in- 
variable attendant  on  acute  mercurial  poisoning;  but  it  is 
nearly  always  observed  in  the  chronic  form.  There  is  a 
very  marked  difference  in  the  susceptibility  of  persons  to 
the  mercurial  influence.  In  some,  the  smallest  dose  will 
speedily  excite  the  most  profuse  ptyalism,  as  in  a  case  men- 
tioned by  Sir  R.  Christison,  where  two  grains  of  calomel 
caused  ptyalism,  extensive  ulceration  of  the  throat,  exfolia- 
tion of  the  lower  jaw,  and  death.  It  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  salivation  may  be  caused  by  other  substances  besides 
mercury :  among  these  may  be  mentioned  iodide  of  potas- 
sium, digitalis,  antimony,  arsenic,  etc. 

In  a  suspicious  case,  the  chemical  detection  of  mercury 
in  the  saliva  would  settle  the  question  as  to  its  mercurial 
origin. 

Chemical  analysis. — I.  As  a  solid. — Heated  on  platinum-foil, 
it  fuses  and  is  wholly  dissipated  in  white,  acrid  fumes.  If 
the  vapor  be  received  on  a  cool  surface,  it  condenses  in 
groups  of  peculiar-formed,  white,  radiating  crystals.  "When 
touched  with  a  drop  of  liquor  potassse,  it  turns  of  a  brown- 
ish-yellow color:  calomel,  under  similar  treatment,  becomes 
black.  A  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  immediately 
causes  it  to  assume  a  bright  scarlet  color:  this  reaction  is 
very  delicate,  and  serves  to  detect  the  minutest  fragment  of 
the  salt.  If  a  drop  of  the  iodide  of  potassium  solution  be 
placed  upon  a  piece  of  bright  metallic  copper,  in  contact 
with  the  smallest  portion  of  corrosive  sublimate,  the  latter 
will  be  decomposed,  and  a  bright  silvery  stain  will  be  seen 
upon  the  copper,  especially  if  it  be  rubbed  with  the  finger 
or  other  soft  substance;  a  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid  may  be 
substituted  for  the  iodide  of  potassium.  This  stain  is  imme- 
diately dissipated  by  heat.  Sulphide  of  ammonium  applied 
to  a  small  portion  of  the  powder  at  first  turns  it  yellowish, 
but  subsequently  black.  Heated  in  a  reduction-tube  along 
with  dried  carbonate  of  soda,  a  sublimate  is  deposited  in  the 
form  of  a  white  ring,  which,  under  the  microscope,  is  found 


POISONING   BY   CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. — TESTS.  279 

to  be  composed  of  globules  of  metallic  mercury.  The  white 
residue,  when  dissolved  in  water  by  the  aid  of  heat  and  a 
little  nitric  acid,  may  be  proved  to  contain  chlorine  by  the 
action  of  nitrate  of  silver,  which  precipitates  the  white  chlo- 
ride of  silver. 

II.  As  a  liquid. — (a)  A  drop  of  the  solution,  not  very  dilute, 
if  evaporated  on  a  glass  slide,  will  yield  a  deposit  of  long, 
needle-shaped  or  prismatic  crystals.  The  presence  of  organic 
matter  readily  interferes  with  the  crystallization  of  this  salt. 
(b)  It  is  easily  decomposed  by  albumen,  fibrin,  casein,  gluten, 
and  tannic  acid:  hence  the  usefulness  of  these  articles  as 
antidotes  to  this  poison.  (c)  Solution  of  potassa  or  soda  in 
excess  throws  down  the  yellow  oxide  of  mercury.  If  not  in 
excess,  the  precipitate  has  a  brownish  color.  This  precipi- 
tate may  be  identified  by  drying  and  heating  in  a  reduction- 
tube  :  a  sublimate  of  globules  of  mercury  will  be  deposited, 
with  the  evolution  of  free  oxygen  gas.  (d)  Ammonia  causes 
a  white  precipitate  (ami-chloride  of  mercury) :  this  is  soluble 
in  a  large  excess  of  the  precipitant.  If  the  precipitate  be 
dried  and  heated,  it  volatilizes  without  residue,  in  which 
respect  it  differs  from  all  other  metallic  precipitates  pro- 
duced by  ammonia,  (e)  Solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  causes 
a  bright  scarlet  iodide  of  mercury,  readily  soluble  in  excess 
of  the  precipitant.  At  first  the  color  is  yellow,  but  it  quickly 
becomes  scarlet.  When  this  iodide  is  dried,  and  heated  in 
a  reduction-tube,  it  volatilizes  unchanged,  and  condenses  in 
a  yellow,  semi-crystalline  deposit,  which  slowly  changes  to 
a  scarlet  color.  (/)  Protochloride  of  tin  in  limited  quantity 
causes  with  corrosive  sublimate  a  white  precipitate  of  the 
subchloride  (calomel) ;  if  the  reagent  be  in  excess,  a  dark- 
gray  precipitate  of  metallic  mercury  takes  place,  which  runs 
into  distinct  globules  on  being  boiled.  (g)  Sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen and  sulphide  of  ammonium  in  minimum  quantities 
produce,  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  a  precipitate, 
the  color  of  which  is  gray  or  white,  at  first ;  on  adding  more 
of  the  reagent,  the  color  changes  to  reddish  and  black,  and 
finally  becomes  completely  black  (the  black  sulphide).  This 
progressive  change  of  color,  under  the  circumstances  men- 
tioned, is  peculiar  to  the  persalts  of  mercury.  Any  of  these 


280  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

precipitates,  if  dried  and  mixed  with  dry  carbonate  of  soda 
(or  with  iron-filings,  Ortila)  and  then  heated  in  a  reduction- 
tube,  will  yield  a  sublimate  of  metallic  globules,  (h)  The 
copper  test. — If  a  piece  of  bright  copper-foil  or  copper  wire  be 
plunged  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  acidulated  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  it  speedily  becomes  coated  with  a  bright 
silvery  deposit  of  metallic  mercury.  When  the  copper  is 
thoroughly  dried,  and  heated  in  a  reduction-tube,  a  subli- 
mate of  metallic  globules  will  be  obtained,  easily  recognized 
under  the  magnifier.  This  test  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and 
will  serve  to  detect  one  ten-thousandth  of  a  grain,  if  the 
deposit  be  received  on  a  very  small  surface  of  copper  and 
the  latter  heated  in  a  very  small  reduction-tube.  But  even 
much  more  minute  portions  may  be  recognized,  according  to 
Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  339),  by  the  following 
method.  A  quite  thin  and  perfectly  clean  tube  of  the  diameter 
of  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  is  drawn  out  into  a  small  capil- 
lary neck.  The  coated  copper  is  then  introduced  through 
the  wider  portion  of  the  cooled  tube  to  the  point  of  con- 
traction, and  the  wider  end  very  carefully  fused  shut  by 
means  of  the  blowpipe.  The  appearance  of  the  tube  then 
resembles  that  of  a  small  thermometer-tube — the  bulb  con- 
taining the  coated  copper.  The  tube  is  now  heated  at  the 
point  containing  the  copper,  and  then  the  capillary  end  is 
closed.  It  is  then  wiped,  and  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope, when  a  well-defined  ring  of  mercurial  globules  will 
be  seen  in  the  narrow  tube,  a  short  distance  above  the  con- 
tracted portion.  The  tube  thus  closed  may  be  kept  for  future 
reference;  though,  after  long  periods,  the  sublimate  gradually 
becomes  fainter  and  finally  disappears.  This  method  has 
also  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  higher  powers  of  the 
microscope  to  be  applied,  on  account  of  the  extreme  thin- 
ness of  their  walls.  According  to  Prof.  Wormley,  one  five- 
hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain,  treated  as  above,  yielded 
as  many  as  twenty  satisfactory  globules  of  mercury,  the 
largest  of  which  measured  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  though  most  of  them  averaged  from  one  five- 
thousandth  to  one  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch.  A  power  of 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  diameters  is  the  highest  that 


POISONING   BY   CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. — TESTS.  281 

can  be  successfully  used,  on  account  of  the  curvature  of  the 
glass  (loc.  tit.,  p.  340). 

In  case  the  metallic  sublimate  on  the  sides  of  the  reduction- 
tube  should  be  very  faint  and  uncertain,  M.  Tardieu  (Sur 
PEmpoisonnement,  p.  580)  recommends  a  neat  and  satisfac- 
tory method.  A  minute  crystal  of  iodine  is  pushed  into  the 
tube,  by  means  of  a  platinum  wire,  as  far  as  the  sublimate; 
the  open  end  of  the  tube  is  then  stopped  up  with  wax,  and 
it  is  kept  in  a  horizontal  position,  at  a  temperature  of  30°  to 
40°  C.  In  about  twelve  hours,  the  deposit,  if  it  be  composed 
of  mercury,  will  assume  a  lively  scarlet  tint,  due  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  red  iodide  of  mercury.  After  removing  the 
fragment  of  iodine,  the  tube  may  be  gently  and  progressively 
heated  from  below  by  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  when  the 
scarlet  color  will  change  to  yellow,  which  latter  hue  will 
continue  as  long  as  the  tube  remains  warm  ;  but  on  cooling 
the  tube,  or  on  contact  with  a  foreign  body,  it  will  resume  its 
scarlet  color. 

(i)  The  galvanic  test. — This  consists  in  the  employment  of  a 
strip  of  gold  wound  around  a  strip  of  zinc  (tin  or  iron  will 
answer  in  place  of  the  latter),  and  introducing  them  into  the 
mercurial  solution,  slightly  acidulated  with  muriatic  acid.  In 
a  short  time  the  gold  will  be  covered  with  a  silver-colored 
film  of  metallic  mercury.  On  washing  the  gold  in  water  and 
ether,  carefully  drying  it,  and  heating  in  a  reduction-tube, 
the  characteristic  sublimate  of  mercurial  globules  may  be 
obtained.  A  very  simple  method  of  employing  the  galvanic 
test,  according  to  Prof.  Guy  (Forensic  Medicine,  p.  467),  is  to 
take  a  narrow  strip  of  zinc,  sufficiently  small  to  be  introduced 
into  a  reduction-tube,  moisten  it,  and  take  up  as  much  gold- 
leaf  as  will  adhere  to  it;  introduce  this  into  the  acidulated 
solution  :  the  gold  will  soon  be  covered  with  a  gray  film. 
Wash  and  dry  it  carefully ;  introduce  it  into  a  reduction-tube 
and  heat  with  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp ;  a  ring  of  metallic 
globules  will  be  formed.  This  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
delicate  of  all  the  tests :  it  is  generally  employed  in  the  de- 
tection of  the  poison  in  organic  mixtures. 

In  the  employment  of  the  copper  and  the  galvanic  test, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  the  silvery  deposit 


282  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

upon  the  copper  or  gold  that  affords  the  proof  of  the  presence 
of  mercury,  but  only  the  actual  obtaining  of  the  metal  in  the 
form  of  globules,  by  sublimation. 

In  organic  mixtures. — As  corrosive  sublimate  is  soluble,  it  is 
rare  to  meet  with  it  in  the  solid  form ;  but,  since  it  may  be 
administered  in  mass,  some  of  the  poison  maybe  discovered 
among  the  other  substances,  by  merely  stirring  the  liquid, 
at  the  same  time  adding,  if  very  viscid,  distilled  water;  the 
corrosive  sublimate,  from  its  weight,  will  subside  in  lumps, 
and  may  be  collected  and  identified.  But,  as  this  poison  is 
readily  decomposed  by  albumen,  fibrin,  gluten,  tanuic  acid, 
and  other  substances,  it  will  most  probably  be  found  in  a 
state  insoluble  in  water.  Still,  under  these  circumstances, 
sufficient  of  the  mercury  in  the  soluble  condition  can  usually 
be  detected  in  complex  fluids,  even  after  a  considerable  time. 
Hence  we  may  expect  to  find  this  poison  in  both  conditions 
— dissolved  and  in  combination.  In  the  former  state,  the 
liquid  should  be  obtained  clear  by  filtration,  after  boiling 
with  water,  if  necessary.  The  solid  matters  should  be  pressed, 
dried,  and  set  aside  for  future  examination.  The  liquid  por- 
tion should  be  slightly  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
warmed,  and  tested  with  a  slip  of  bright  copper,  the  latter 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  liquid  for  some  hours,  if  no 
deposit  occurs  in  a  short  time.  When  the  quantity  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate  in  the  solution  is  large,  it  may  be  removed 
by  means  of  ether.  The  filtered  liquid  containing  the  poison 
is  put  into  a  stoppered  tube  containing  twice  its  volume  of 
pure  ether,  and  the  contents  thoroughly  agitated  at  intervals. 
Allow  the  liquid  to  subside,  remove  the  ether  by  means  of 
a  pipette,  and  allow  it  to  evaporate  spontaneously.  As  the 
ether  passes  off,  the  corrosive  sublimate  will  be  deposited  in 
white,  silky  prisms.  These  may  be  purified,  if  necessary, 
by  solution  in  water  or  alcohol,  and  again  crystallized.  Cor- 
rosive sublimate  may  thus  be  separated  from  arsenic  and 
other  mineral  poisons. 

Tardieu  (loc.  ctt.,  p.  581)  objects  to  this  mode  of  separation 
by  ether,  on  two  grounds :  first,  because  the  poison  can  never 
be  wholly  separated  by  this  means;  and  secondly,  because 
the  ether  must  necessarily  dissolve  a  considerable  quantity  of 


POISONING   BY   CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. — IN   THE   TISSUES.    283 

fatty  matters,  which  are  deposited  by  evaporation  of  the  ether, 
along  with  the  mercurial  salt.  It  should,  moreover,  be  re- 
membered that  any  mercurial  salt  associated  with  an  alkaline 
chloride,  such  as  chloride  of  sodium,  would  be  acted  upon  by 
ether  in  a  similar  manner:  consequently,  the  single  fact  of 
the  presence  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  ether  is  not  positive 
proof  that  the  poisoning  was  occasioned  by  this  particular  salt. 

As  regards  the  solid  portions,  supposed  to  contain  the 
poison  in  combination  with  certain  organic  substances,  they 
may  first  be  boiled  with  distilled  water  for  about  half  an 
hour,  stirring  frequently.  When  cold,  filter, and  concentrate, 
by  heat ;  then  examine  in  the  manner  directed  for  the  first 
liquid  portion  (p.  279).  If  no  evidence  of  the  presence  of 
mercury  is  given,  the  solid  matters  should  be  boiled  in  water 
containing  hydrochloric  acid  until  complete  disintegration 
occurs ;  filter  when  cooled,  and  test  as  above.  Another 
method,  sometimes  pursued,  is  to  dry  the  solid  matters 
thoroughly  and  digest  the  dried  residue  in  warm  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  by  which  the  insoluble  mass  is  converted 
into  the  soluble  corrosive  sublimate.  The  acid  liquor 
must  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue  dissolved 
in  distilled  water,  and  filtered.  The  corrosive  sublimate 
may  now  either  be  dissolved  out  by  ether  or  at  once  tried 
with  the  protochloride  of  tin,  or  by  the  galvanic  test. 

In  the  tissues  and  urine. — The  urine  should  be  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  dried  residue  treated  by  the  process  next  to 
be  described  for  the  tissues. 

From  four  to  eight  ounces  of  the  liver,  kidneys,  spleen,  or 
other  organs  to  be  examined,  should  be  dried,  broken  up,  and 
then  boiled,  until  dissolved,  in  one  part  of  pure  hydrochloric 
acid  and  four  parts  of  water.  When  cool,  the  liquid  should 
be  strained  through  linen,  and  the  residue  pressed.  The 
liquid,  if  in  large  quantity,  should  be  concentrated  by  gentle 
evaporation,  and,  while  still  warm,  a  small  piece  of  pure  cop- 
per-foil should  be  introduced.  The  copper  will  acquire  a 
coating  of  a  silvery  or  silver-gray  appearance  in  the  course  of 
a  few  minutes,  or  after  a  longer  time.  It  may  be  removed, 
washed  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  examined  by  a  magnifier, 
which  will  serve  to  distinguish  the  deposition  of  any  metallic 


284  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

film.  The  copper  is  next  to  be  rolled  up  and  heated  in  a  re- 
duction-tube, when  the  deposition  of  metallic  globules  in  the 
form  of  a  ring,  on  the  inside  of  the  tube,  will  establish  the 
presence  of  mercury  in  the  original  acid  solution. 

If  arsenic  had  been  present  in  the  tissues  at  the  same 
time  with  the  mercury,  the  boiling  of  the  acid  liquid  upon 
the  copper  would  cause  a  deposit  of  both  metals  upon  the 
latter;  and  when  this  is  heated  in  the  reduction-tube  there 
will  be  seen  a  mixture  of  mercurial  globules  with  octahedral 
crystals  of  arsenious  acid  in  the  sublimate.  In  the  cold  acid 
liquid  arsenic  would  not  be  deposited  on  the  copper,  while 
mercury  would  be,  at  all  temperatures.  By  this  means  we 
may  separate  these  two  metals  when  they  exist  in  the  same 
solution. 

Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  420)  mentions  a  case  of  this 
nature  where  arsenic  had  been  criminally  administered  to 
the  deceased,  and  where  also  two  grains  of  calomel  had 
been  taken,  medicinally,  two  days  before  death.  Twenty-one 
months  after  burial,  the  presence  of  both  arsenic  and  mer- 
cury was  distinctly  proven  through  the  sublimates  obtained 
by  means  of  the  copper  process. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  person  may  die  from  poison- 
ing by  corrosive  sublimate  and  yet  no  mercury  be  found 
in  the  tissues.  Dr.  Taylor  cites  two  cases  of  this  character : 
one  of  these  patients  survived  fifteen  days,  after  taking  a  large 
dose  of  the  poison  in  whisky.  Although  the  local  effect  on 
the  mouth,  throat,  stomach,  and  bowels  was  of  the  most  in- 
tense kind,  the  chemical  analysis  could  detect  no  trace  of 
mercury  in  any  of  the  viscera:  it  had  been  entirely  elimi- 
nated (Med.  Gaz.,  vol.  xlvi.  p.  253).  It  also  occasionally 
happens  that  this  poison,  like  many  others,  cannot  be  de- 
tected after  death,  in  the  stomach.  Taylor  mentions  several 
instances  of  this  character  (loc.  tit.}.  In  two,  death  occurred 
on  the  fourth  day,  after  taking  two  drachms  of  the  poison; 
in  another,  two  drachms  proved  fatal  in  six  days ;  and  in 
a  fourth,  three  drachms  destroyed  life  in  six  days.  In  none 
of  these  could  the  poison  be  discovered  in  the  stomach  or 
intestines. 

Many  other  metallic  poisons  are  doubtless  eliminated  from 


POISONING   BY   CORROSIVE   SUBLIMATE. — SALIVATION.      285 

the  body  through  the  saliva;  a  chemical  examination  of  this 
secretion  might  often  lead  to  their  ready  detection. 

The  above-described  examination  of  the  tissues  and  secre- 
tions can  merely  establish  the  presence  of  mercury,  but  not 
in  the  particular  form  of  corrosive  sublimate:  the  proof  of 
the  latter  must  be  sought  in  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
either  by  dialysis,  or  by  the  action  of  ether  on  the  aqueous 
solution  obtained  from  these  last-mentioned  organs.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  mere  detection  of  small  quantities 
of  mercury  in  the  tissues,  organs,  and  secretions  is  no  evi- 
dence of  poisoning  by  this  substance,  unless  it  be  supported 
by  the  character  of  the  symptoms  before  death,  and  by  the 
post-mortem  lesions.  The  administration,  before  death,  of  a 
dose  of  calomel,  blue-pill,  etc.,  could  readily  account  for  the 
presence  of  mercury  in  the  different  viscera  after  death,  on 
the  well-recognized  principle  of  absorption. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  importance  of  analyzing 
the  saliva  in  a  case  of  suspected  mercurial  ptyalism.  This  is 
readily  effected  by  acidulating  that  secretion  with  one-fourth 
part  of  muriatic  acid;  a  piece  of  bright  copper  attached  to 
a  platinum  wire  should  then  be  immersed  in  it,  and  the 
whole  kept  at  a  warm  temperature  for  several  hours.  If 
mercury  be  present  in  the  saliva,  the  copper  will  become 
whitened.  By  heating  the  copper,  after  washing  and  dry- 
ing, in  a  reduction-tube,  the  sublimate  of  characteristic 
mercurial  globules  will  establish  the  proof  of  the  presence 
of  this  metal. 

The  exact  relationship  between  salivation  and  poisoning  by 
corrosive  sublimate  is  a  matter  of  considerable  medico-legal 
importance.  It  is  well  known,  in  the  first  place,  that  there 
is  no  fixed  or  definite  period  at  which  ptyalism  comes  on, 
after  the  poison  has  been  swallowed.  In  some  cases  of  acute 
poisoning  it  does  not  appear  at  all;  and  very  rarely,  unless 
the  patient  survive  two  or  three  days.  Thus,  in  a  case  which 
occurred  to  Dr.  Venablea,  in  which  two  drachms  of  this  sub- 
stance had  been  taken,  and  the  woman  survived  eight  days, 
there  was  no  salivation.  But  in  another  case,  reported  by 
Mr.  "Wood  (Edin.  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  li.  141),  in  which 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  the  poison  had  been  swallowed,  saliva- 

19 


286  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

tion  was  profuse  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours.  Dr.  Percy 
relates  a  case  in  which  the  saliva  was  flowing  profusely  one 
hour  and  a  half  after  a  woman  had  taken  a  dose  of  thirty 
grains  (Med.  Gaz.,  1843,  i.  p.  942).  In  these  cases  of  early 
salivation,  it  is  alleged  that  the  fetor  of  the  breath  is  absent, 
and  that  the  abundant  flow  of  saliva  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
local  irritant  effect  of  the  poison,  rather  than  to  the  result  of 
absorption.  It  must  certainly  be  admitted  that  the  direct 
irritant  action  of  corrosive  sublimate  upon  the  tongue  and 
mouth  may  cause  a  profuse  discharge  of  saliva,  with  swelling 
of  the  lips.  (See  case  reported  in  Prov.  Med.  Jour.,  Nov. 
18,  1843,  p.  127.) 

Another  point  for  consideration  is  the  difference  in  the 
susceptibility  of  persons  to  the  mercurial  impression.  As 
a  general  rule,  children  are  less  susceptible  than  adults  ;  the 
robust,  less  than  the  delicate.  Certain  morbid  conditions  of 
the  system  particularly  predispose  to  its  injurious  impression, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  albuminuria  and  anaemia. 
In  an  apoplectic  patient  of  Dr.  Bright's,  five  grains  of  calo- 
mel placed  on  the  tongue  produced,  in  three  hours,  violent 
salivation,  and  such  swelling  of  the  tongue  as  to  render 
scarification  necessary.  Three  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate 
in  three  doses  have  caused  violent  ptyalism  ;  three  five-grain 
doses  of  blue-pill,  one  every  night,  have  proved  fatal ;  two 
grains  of  calomel  have  caused  ulceration  of  the  throat,  ex- 
foliation of  the  jaw,  and  death ;  and  the  external  application 
of  three  drachms  of  mercurial  ointment  has  destroyed  life  in 
eight  days.  (Guy's  Forensic  Medicine,  1868,  p.  471 ;  from 
Christison  on  Poisons.) 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  mercurial  salivation  may  be 
intermittent ;  that  is,  it  may  cease  for  a  time,  and  reappear 
without  any  mercurial  preparation  being  given  in  the  in- 
terim. Such  cases  are,  however,  rare ;  but  the  fact  of  the 
possibility  of  their  occurrence  is  of  importance  in  connec- 
tion with  medical  jurisprudence.  One  case  of  this  kind  is 
quoted  by  Mr.  Swan  (On  the  Action  of  Mercury,  1847,  p.  4), 
in  which  salivation  recurred  after  an  interval  of  six  months. 

Another  fact  of  importance  to  the  legal  physician  is,  that 
salivation  may  be  produced  by  other  agents  besides  the 


POISONING   BY   MERCURY. — SALIVATION.  287 

preparations  of  mercury ;  so  that  this  symptom  when  taken 
alone  can  never  furnish  evidence  of  poisoning  by  mercury. 
Salivation  may  arise  spontaneously,  from  disease  of  the  sali- 
vary organs,  or  even  from  a  mechanical  cause,  such  as  the 
irritation  of  a  set  of  artificial  teeth.  It  not  unfrequently 
follows  the  internal  use  of  iodide  of  potassium,  iodine,  the 
preparations  of  copper,  bismuth,  lead,  antimony,  gold,  ar- 
senic, digitalis,  croton  oil,  cantharides,  colchicum,  and  other 
articles  of  the  materia  medica.  The  usual  diagnostic  points 
of  difference  between  mercurial  and  non-mercurial  salivation 
are  said  to  be  the  presence  of  the  coppery  taste,  the  fetor  of 
the  breath,  and  the  spongy  and  ulcerated  condition  of  the 
gums  in  the  former,  while  they  are  wanting  in  the  cases 
of  salivation  occasioned  by  other  causes.  But  it  would  seem 
that  these  characters  have  been  equally  met  with  in  the 
salivation  produced  by  arsenic  and  by  bismuth.  (Prov.  Med. 
Jour.,  Oct.  22,  1845,  p.  638 ;  also,  Lancet,  June  13,  1846, 
p.  654.) 

The  disease  named  cancrum  om,  or  canker  of  the  mouth,  not 
unfrequently  occurs  among  children  brought  up  under  bad 
hygienic  influences,  or  while  recovering  from  exhausting  dis- 
eases, especially  from  hooping-cough  and  measles.  Among 
the  symptoms  of  this  affection  are  ulceration  of  the  gums 
and  a  falling  out  of  the  teeth,  along  with  gangrene  of  the 
cheek.  In  such  cases,  if  a  preparation  of  mercury  should 
have  happened  to  be  given,  it  might  easily  become  a  serious 
question  to  determine  whether  death  actually  resulted  from 
mercury  acting  as  a  poison,  or  from  the  disease.  Dr.  Taylor 
(On  Poisons,  p.  406)  cites  a  case  in  point.  A  charge  was 
made  against  a  medical  practitioner  of  having  caused  the 
death  of  a  child,  aged  four  years,  by  administering  an  over- 
dose of  some  mercurial  preparation,  for  the  treatment  of 
hooping-cough.  On  the  fourth  day,  the  child  complained 
of  soreness  of  the  mouth,  the  teeth  became  loose  and  fell 
out,  the  tongue  and  cheek  were  much  swollen  ;  and  the  child 
died  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  from  gangrene  of  the  left 
cheek.  The  answer  to  the  charge  was,  that  not  a  particle  of 
mercury  had  been  exhibited, — a  fact  clearly  proved  from  the 
prescription-book  of  the  medical  attendant !  This,  then,  was 


288  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

an  instance  in  which  gangrene  from  spontaneous  causes  had 
been  mistaken  for  mercurial  poisoning.  Had  the  medicine 
prescribed  contained  any  mercury,  a  verdict  affecting  the 
character  of  the  practitioner  would  probably  have  been  re- 
turned. An  important  case  of  this  character,  in  which  the 
medical  witness  relied  upon  the  "  mercurial  fetor"  as  char- 
acteristic and  distinctive,  will  be  found  in  the  "Lancet,"  June 
13,  1846,  p.  654  (loc.  cit.).  As  before  observed  (p.  285),  the 
chemical  analysis  of  the  saliva  would  settle  any  question  of 
this  kind. 

Quantitative  analysis.  —  Corrosive  sublimate  may  be  esti- 
mated as  a  sulphide,  by  first  carefully  washing  and  drying 
the  precipitate  obtained  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Every 
100  grains  of  the  dried  sulphide  are  equivalent  to  116.81 
grains  of  anhydrous  corrosive  sublimate.  By  employing 
the  chloride  of  tin  with  a  known  quantity  of  the  mercurial 
solution,  the  metal  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  globules: 
it  should  be  purified,  by  first  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  po- 
tassa,  and  afterwards  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Every  100  grains 
of  metallic  mercury  are  equivalent  to  135.5  grains  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate. 

The  other  compounds  of  mercury  which  may  occasionally 
prove  poisonous  are  red  precipitate,  white  precipitate,  red  oxide, 
cinnabar  or  red  sulphuret,  calomel,  the  nitrates,  and  the  sulphates. 

A  case  of  poisoning  by  red  precipitate  is  reported  in  the 
"  Irish  Hospital  Gazette,"  Oct.  15,  1873,  that  of  a  girl,  aged 
fifteen  years,  who  swallowed  half  an  ounce  by  mistake.  No 
urgent  symptoms  were  manifested;  an  emetic  of  sulphate 
of  zinc  was  administered,  and  the  liberal  use  of  milk  en- 
joined as  a  diet.  The  following  day,  her  lips,  gums,  and 
mouth  were  very  sore,  swollen,  and  reddened ;  there  was  the 
mercurial  fetor  from  the  breath,  with  headache,  and  pains 
in  the  epigastrium.  She  took  Battley's  sedative  mixture,  to- 
gether with  an  alum  gargle  for  her  mouth;  poultices  were 
applied  to  the  abdomen.  Improvement  commenced  imme- 
diately;  and,  after  a  dose  of  castor  oil,  she  had  no  further 
trouble,  except  a  soreness  of  the  mouth  for  about  a  week, 
and  the  loss  of  two  front  teeth. 


POISONING   BY   COPPER.  289 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

POISONING    BY   COPPER. 

COPPER  in  the  metallic  state  is  not  poisonous.  But  if  taken 
into  the  stomach,  it  is  soon  acted  upon  by  the  secretions  and 
contents  of  this  organ,  and  soluble  compounds  are  generated 
which  may  prove  highly  poisonous.  Copper  coins  are  some- 
times swallowed  by  children,  and  may  produce  injurious 
effects  both  by  their  mechanical  irritation,  and  by  the  poison- 
ous action  of  the  resulting  compounds.  Many  instances  of 
this  character  have  been  recorded,  in  some  of  which  colicky 
symptoms,  irritation  of  the  bowels,  nausea  and  vomiting, 
emaciation,  and  death  have  resulted.  Such  cases  sometimes 
are  protracted  for  several  years. 

Instances  of  accidental  poisoning  by  inhaling  copper  alloy 
in  fine  powder  are  afforded  in  persons  who  are  engaged  in 
what  is  termed  printing  in  gold.  The  alloy  is  applied  on  the 
sized  letters  in  the  state  of  an  impalpable  powder,  so  light  that 
it  floats  in  the  atmosphere,  and  is  constantly  being  inhaled 
into  the  lungs  of  the  workmen.  The  symptoms  produced 
are  vomiting  of  a  greenish  fluid,  heat  and  constriction  of  the 
gullet,  pain  in  the  stomach,  loss  of  appetite  and  rest,  and  a 
severe  itching  in  all  the  parts  covered  with  hair ;  these,  on 
examination,  are  found  to  be  of  a  deep-green  color.  (Fal- 
coner on  Copper-Poisoning.) 

Cases  of  accidental  poisoning  by  copper  are  very  frequently 
to  be  traced  to  want  of  cleanliness  in  cooking,  or  to  keeping 
food  in  copper  vessels.  Many  kinds  of  food  are  contaminated 
by  contact  with  copper,  especially  such  as  contain  a  vegetable 
acid,  as  vinegar,  an  alkaline  chloride,  as  common  salt,  or  any 
kind  of  oil  or  fat.  Hence  pickles,  or  preserves  in  acid,  are 
soon  impregnated  with  copper  under  such  circumstances ;  so, 
also,  salt  provisions,  as  fish,  etc.,  very  soon  acquire  poisonous 
properties  if  kept  in  copper  vessels;  likewise,  articles  of  food 
of  a  greasy  or  fatty  nature  soon  become  affected  with  the 


290  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

poisonous  contamination.  In  all  these  cases  the  poisonous 
impression  appears  to  be  produced  chiefly  about  the  line  of 
contact  between  the  particular  substance  and  the  external 
air,  as  is  denoted  by  a  greenish  discoloration.  So  long  as  the 
copper  utensils  employed  in  cooking  are  kept  perfectly  clean 
and  bright,  no  risk  is  incurred  in  their  use;  but  if  cleanli- 
ness be  neglected,  and  a  deposit  of  the  green  carbonate  be 
allowed  to  accumulate,  this  latter,  being  a  very  poisonous 
salt,  will  impart  very  noxious  properties  to  the  food  which 
may  happen  to  come  in  contact  with  it. 

Dr.  Falconer  found  that  distilled  water  kept  several  weeks 
on  a  polished  plate  of  copper  neither  injured  its  lustre,  nor 
acquired  any  taste,  nor  became  colored  by  ammonia;  and 
Drouard  afterwards  observed  that  distilled  water,  kept  for  a 
month  in  copper  tilings,  did  not  contain  any  of  the  metal. 
If,  however,  the  water  contain  common  salt  in  consider- 
able proportion,  it  will  certainly  become  contaminated  (Chris- 
tison  on  Poisons,  p.  450).  Eller  has  shown  that  milk,  tea, 
coffee,  beer,  and  rain-water,  kept  in  a  state  of  ebullition 
for  two  hours,  do  not  contract  the  slightest  impurity  from 
clean  copper;  the  same  is  true  (according  to  Falconer)  of 
turnips,  cabbage,  potatoes,  carrots,  onions,  rice,  and  barley 
(ibid.}. 

Whilst  no  danger  might  result  from  boiling  acidulous 
liquids  in  clean  copper  vessels,  it  would  be  very  unsafe  to  keep 
these  fluids  cold,  in  the  same  vessels.  In  the  latter  case  the 
atmospheric  air  begins  to  act,  while  in  the  former  it  was 
expelled  by  ebullition.  It  has  been  observed  that  in  pre- 
paring food  or  preserves  in  copper  vessels,  it  is  only  when 
the  fluid  ceases  to  cover  the  metal,  and  is  reduced  in  tem- 
perature, that  solution  of  the  metal  begins.  Inattention  to 
this  difference  has  been  the  cause  of  fatal  accidents,  of  which 
the  following  case  will  serve  as  a  good  example.  A  servant 
left  some  sour-krout  for  only  a  couple  of  hours  in  a  copper 
pan  which  had  lost  its  tinning.  Her  mistress  and  daughter, 
who  ate  of  the  cabbage,  died  after  twelve  hours'  illness. 
Wildberg  found  the  cabbage  so  strongly  impregnated  with 
copper  that  it  was  detected  by  metallic  iron.  (Ibid.,  p.  452.) 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  preceding  observations  that 


POISONING   BY   COPPER. — ACCIDENTAL.  291 

there  is  hardly  any  article  of  food  or  drink  which  may  not 
be  contaminated,  if  kept  in  copper  vessels,  as  there  are  few- 
articles  that  do  not  contain  either  an  acid  or  some  fatty  mat- 
ter; and  it  further  appears  that  the  impregnation  scarcely 
ever  takes  place  during  the  boiling  of  these  articles,  but  only 
during  the  preservation  of  them  in  the  cold  state.  For  ordi- 
nary use,  it  would  certainly  be  safer  to  dispense  altogether 
with  copper  vessels,  and  substitute  iron  or  tin.  Indeed, 
copper  vessels  are  now  usually  tinned,  to  prevent  accidental 
impregnation.  As  the  tinning  consists  of  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
lead,  it  might  happen,  according  to  Dr.  Taylor,  that  lead-poi- 
soning may  thus  be  substituted  for  copper-poisoning.  As  most 
of  the  copper  of  commerce  contains  arsenic,  it  might  readily 
happen,  in  the  use  of  copper  vessels  for  culinary  purposes,  in 
which  the  metal  is  converted  into  cupreous  compounds  by 
means  of  acids  and  fats,  that  arsenic  might  be  found  in  the 
green  incrustations.  Dr.  Taylor  states  that  he  has  never 
found  any  dissolved  arsenic,  where  the  copper  thus  forms  an 
insoluble  salt.  This  author  also  alludes  to  an  impure  gold 
alloy,  largely  composed  of  copper,  being  used  by  the  lower 
class  of  dentists  for  forming  the  plates  for  the  support  of 
artificial  teeth.  These  have  been  known  to  aft'ect  seriously 
the  health  of  persons  wearing  them;  the  secretions  of  the 
mouth  favoring  the  production  of  poisonous  salts  of  copper, 
and  probably,  also,  liberating  arsenic.  (Med.  Jurisp.,  Am. 
ed.,  1873,  p.  176.) 

Another  source  of  accidental  poisoning  by  copper  is  men- 
tioned by  the  English  and  French  writers,  in  the  use  of  an 
alloy  resembling  gold  for  ornamenting  cakes  and  confection- 
ery ;  and  also  of  blue  and  green  papers  colored  by  copper 
for  wrappers  of  bonbons,  etc.  The  alloy  may  readily  be 
distinguished  from  gold  by  its  solubility  in  nitric  acid,  which 
gives  a  blue-colored  solution.  In  France,  an  ordinance  pro- 
hibits the  use  of  the  colored  wrappings  above  mentioned,  on 
account  of  their  poisonous  nature.  Still  another  source  of 
contamination  by  copper  has  been  pointed  out  as  occurring 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  especially  in  France,  namely, 
the  adulteration  of  bread  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  sul- 
phate of  copper,  with  the  twofold  purpose  of  making  the 


292  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

bread  whiter  and  at  the  same  time  increasing  its  weight,  by 
causing  the  dough  to  absorb  more  water.  Orfila  proved  this 
to  be  the  case  by  incinerating  several  loaves  of  bread,  and 
detecting  copper  in  the  ashes.  Still,  as  Tardieu  recommends, 
in  any  case  of  suspected  adulteration  of  bread  with  copper, 
where  the  latter  exists  only  in  minute  quantities,  it  will  be 
well  first  to  ascertain  whether  it  might  not  have  been  acci- 
dentally introduced  by  means  of  the  flour  or  water  employed. 
In  one  instance  it  was  traced  to  the  meal,  which  had  been 
contaminated  from  the  copper  cylinders  used  to  grind  it. 

In  the  making  of  many  preserved  fruits  and  pickles,  the 
salts  of  copper  (blue  vitriol  and  verdigris)  are  quite  fre- 
quently employed  to  impart  a  fine  green  color  to  them.  This, 
of  course,  is  a  very  pernicious  practice,  and  ought  to  be  dis- 
countenanced. Dr.  Hassall  states  that  he  found  copper  in 
sixteen  different  samples  of  London  pickles,  and  it  was  most 
abundant  in  those  that  were  green  (Food  and  its  Adultera- 
tions, p.  388).  Dr.  Taylor  detected  copper  in  a  sample  of 
preserved  green  gooseberries  that  had  produced  symptoms 
of  poisoning  in  a  child. 

An  easy  method  of  detecting  the  adulteration  is  to  place 
the  pickles  or  fruit  in  a  solution  of  ammonia,  when,  if  copper 
be  present,  the  substance  will  turn  them  blue.  A  simpler 
method  is  to  plunge  a  bright  needle  into  the  pickle  or  other 
substance :  if  copper  be  present,  it  will  speedily  receive  a 
reddish  coating;  this  may  easily  be  examined  by  ammonia. 

All  the  salts  of  copper  are  poisonous ;  but  those  of  medico- 
legal  importance  are  the  sulphate  (blue  vitriol  or  blue-stone) 
and  the  subacetate  (verdigris).  The  arsenite  (Scheele's  green) 
and  the  aceto-arsenite  (Schweinfurt  green)  have  already  been 
described  under  ARSENIC.  What  is  sometimes  termed  natural 
verdigris  is  the  carbonate  of  copper,  which  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  moist  air  on  the  metal :  this  is  first  slowly  oxidized, 
and  then  converted  into  a  carbonate  by  the  carbonic  acid  of 
the  atmosphere.  It  constitutes  the  greenish  incrustation 
that  collects  upon  copper  or  brass  vessels  which  are  not  kept 
properly  cleaned. 

It  is  seldom  that  the  copper  salts  are  administered  as 
poison  with  a  homicidal  intention,  since  they  are  so  easily 


POISONING   BY   COPPER. — SYMPTOMS.  293 

detected  by  their  color  and  taste.  Neither  would  they  be 
likely  to  be  accidentally  taken,  for  the  same  reason:  occa- 
sionally they  have  been  employed  stiicidally. 

Symptoms  of  acute  poisoning. — Blue  vitriol  may  be  taken  as 
the  type  of  the  copper  salts.  This  has  frequently  been  given 
as  an  abortive.  In  a  large  dose  it  speedily  produces  very 
violent  vomiting,  which  may  have  the  effect  of  expelling  the 
whole  of  the  poison  from  the  stomach,  whereupon  the  patient 
recovers.  There  is  headache,  pain  in  the  abdomen,  of  a 
colicky  character,  with  purging.  The  vomited  matters  are 
distinguished  by  being  of  a  blue  or  green  color;  the  latter 
tint  might  be  owing  to  the  presence  of  bile,  in  which  case 
it  will  not  acquire  a  blue  color  on  the  addition  of  ammonia, 
which  it  would  do  if  the  green  color  were  due  to  copper.  In 
bad  cases  there  are  severe  cramps,  and  sometimes  convul- 
sions. Dr.  Percival  met  with  an  instance  in  which  violent 
convulsions  were  produced  in  a  young  woman  by  two 
drachms  of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  The  pulse  is  small, 
frequent,  and  irregular,  and  there  may  be  great  dizziness, 
with  difficulty  of  breathing,  anxiety,  cold  sweats,  extreme 
thirst,  and  suppression  of  urine.  Paralysis,  insensibility, 
and  even  tetanus  have  preceded  death,  when  the  poison  was 
administered  to  animals.  Among  the  occasional  symptoms 
in  man  may  be  mentioned  jaundice,  which,  according  to 
Sir  R.  Christison,  is  never  observed  in  poisoning  by  either 
arsenic  or  corrosive  sublimate. 

The  symptoms  of  slow  poisoning  by  copper  are  generally 
caused  by  its  accidental  introduction  into  the  system  in  arti- 
cles of  food,  as  already  mentioned.  These  are  much  the 
same  as  those  just  described,  although  varying  in  degree. 
According  to  Orfila,  there  is  an  acrid,  styptic,  coppery  taste 
in  the  mouth ;  parched  and  dry  tongue;  a  sense  of  strangu- 
lation in  the  throat;  coppery  eructations;  continual  spit- 
ting; nausea  and  vomiting  or  retching;  shooting  pains  in 
the  stomach,  often  severe ;  gripings ;  diarrhoea  of  bloody  or 
blackish  stools,  with  teuesmus ;  debility,  with  anxiety  in  the 
prsecordia;  small,  tense,  irregular,  and  frequent  pulse;  heat 
of  skin  ;  great  thirst;  cold  sweats;  scanty  urine;  headache, 
vertigo,  faintness,  cramps  of  the  legs,  and  convulsions. 


294  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

(Toxicologie.)  Another  occasional  symptom  is  a  green  line 
on  the  margin  of  the  gums. 

Fatal  dose. — This  has  not  been  positively  established.  In 
Dr.  Percival's  case  of  the  young  woman  mentioned  above, 
two  drachms  of  the  sulphate  occasioned  most  violent  convul- 
sions, although  the  patient  recovered.  Dr.  Taylor  men- 
tions an  instance  where  half  an  ounce  of  verdigris  destroyed 
the  life  of  a  woman  in  sixty  hours;  and  another  of  a  child, 
where  about  twenty  grains  of  the  subchloride  caused  death 
(On  Poisons,  p.  524).  Dr.  Beck  quotes  a  case  of  a  man,  aged 
forty  years,  who  destroyed  his  own  life  by  taking  one  ounce 
of  sulphate  of  copper:  it  proved  fatal  in  twelve  hours  (Med. 
Jurisp.,  ii.  p.  667).  In  another  instance,  seven  drachms  of 
blue  vitriol  with  three  drachms  of  sulphate  of  iron  caused 
the  death  of  an  adult  in  three  days.  On  the  other  hand, 
cases  are  reported  where  an  ounce  and  upwards  has  been 
swallowed,  without  a  fatal  result.  The  usual  medicinal  dose 
of  the  sulphate  as  an  emetic  is  five  to  fifteen  grains;  and 
this  may  be  repeated  until  emesis  is  effected. 

Fatal  period. — This  is  subject  to  considerable  fluctuation. 
In  the  instance  mentioned  by  Sir  R.  Christison  of  a  mother 
and  daughter  being  poisoned  by  sour-krout  that  had  been 
exposed  to  contact  with  copper,  the  latter  died  in  twelve 
hows,  the  former  an  hour  later.  A  child,  aged  sixteen 
months,  died  from  the  effects  of  an  unknown  dose  of  solid 
sulphate  of  copper  in  four  hours:  this  is  the  most  rapidly 
fatal  case  on  record.  Usually,  death  does  not  occur  for 
several  days. 

Treatment. — Free  vomiting  should  be  promoted  by  the 
copious  use  of  warm  mucilaginous  drinks ;  the  stomach- 
pump  may  be  employed,  if  necessary.  The  best  antidote  is 
albumen,  in  the  form  of  white  of  eggs,  very  freely  taken. 
It  acts,  as  in  the  case  of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  forming  an 
insoluble  albuminate.  Milk  is  asserted  to  be  equally  effectual 
with  albumen  :  it  acts  by  forming  an  insoluble  caseate  of 
copper.  All  the  other  reputed  antidotes,  such  as  iron-filings, 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  magnesia,  etc.,  are  of  much  in- 
ferior value. 

Morbid  appearances.  —  These  indicate  a  powerful   irritant 


POISONING  BY  COPPER. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  295 

action  on  the  alimentary  canal,  which  is  almost  the  exclusive 
seat  of  pathological  change.  In  acute  cases,  the  inside  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels  often  exhibits  a  bluish  or  greenish 
appearance,  due  to  the  color  of  the  salt  taken  :  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  a  somewhat  similar  appearance  may  be 
caused  by  altered  bile.  The  proper  method  of  distinguishing 
between  them  has  been  pointed  out  above  (p.  293).  The  lining 
membrane  of  the  stomach  is  generally  inflamed  and  softened, 
and  has  occasionally  presented  an  ulcerated,  and  even  gangren- 
ous appearance.  The  gullet  has  also  shown  signs  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  intestinal  lining  membrane  exhibits  a  similar 
appearance ;  and  cases  are  reported  where  the  intestines  were 
perforated,  with  the  escape  of  their  contents  into  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen.  The  intestinal  tube  is  usually  much  dis- 
tended with  gas.  According  to  Tardieu  (Sur  PEmpoisonne- 
ment,  p.  525),  there  is  a  remarkable  absence  of  the  bloody 
extravasations,  or  ecchymoses,  in  the  alimentary  canal  and  in 
other  places,  which  are  so  characteristic  of  some  other  irritant 
poisons.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal  has 
been  found  throughout  of  a  deep-green  color,  owing  to  small 
particles  of  verdigris  adhering  to  it.  In  some  cases  of  fatal 
poisoning,  the  stomach  and  intestines  have  been  found  in  a 
perfectly  natural  condition. 

Chemical  analysis. — Metallic  copper  is  easily  recognized  by 
its  red  color,  and  by  nitric  acid,  which  acts  upon  it  with  great 
energy,  and  converts  it  into  the  blue  nitrate  of  copper.  All 
the  salts  of  copper  are  either  of  a  blue  or  a  green  color,  by 
which  they  may  generally  be  identified.  Only  a  few  other 
metallic  salts  are  thus  colored :  thus,  some  of  the  salts  of 
cobalt  are  blue,  and  some  of  those  of  nickel,  chromium,  and 
uranium  are  green.  Any  of  the  salts  of  copper,  when  heated 
in  the  inner  (reducing)  flame  of  the  blowpipe,  impart  a 
beautiful  green  color  to  the  flame,  and  when  mixed  with  dry 
carbonate  of  soda  and  heated  on  charcoal,  the  same  flame 
reduces  them  to  metallic  copper,  in  globules,  which  may 
readily  be  identified. 

The  sulphate,  or  blue  vitriol,  occurs  in  large,  beautiful,  blue 
crystals,  eflervescent,  very  soluble  in  water,  having  a  nau- 
seous, metallic,  styptic  taste.  Its  solution  has  a  blue  color, 


296  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

recognizable  when  diluted  to  one  five-thousandth  of  its 
weight.  The  solution  has  an  acid  reaction. 

The  verdigris  of  commerce  is  usually  a  mixture  of  the  sub- 
acetate  with  other  acetates  of  copper.  It  generally  occurs  in 
masses  of  a  pale-green  or  bluish  color.  It  has  an  unpleasant, 
acetous  odor,  and  a  nauseous,  styptic  taste.  It  is  not  entirely 
soluble  iu  water,  but  deposits  an  insoluble  basic  acetate. 
It  is  completely  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids.  Sulphuric  acid  decomposes  it,  forming  the  sulphate 
of  copper,  and  liberating  acetic  acid,  which  is  recognized 
by  its  characteristic  odor. 

The  proper  tests  for  copper  in  solution  are  the  following : 
(1)  Ammonia  produces  in  solutions  of  a  copper  salt  a  bluish- 
white,  amorphous  precipitate — hydrated  oxide  of  copper, 
which  is  immediately  dissolved  by  an  excess  of  the  precipi- 
tant to  a  clear,  dark,  purple-blue  solution.  With  very  dilute 
solutions,  ammonia  may  fail  to  yield  a  precipitate,  but  it 
immediately  causes  the  liquid  to  assume  a  blue  color :  this 
color  is  at  once  destroyed  on  adding  an  acid.  This  test  will 
readily  distinguish  one  ten-thousandth  of  a  grain  of  the 
sulphate  in  a  drop  of  water  (Worraley).  This  reaction  is 
quite  conclusive,  provided  the  absence  of  salts  of  nickel, 
cobalt,  and  chromium  be  secured:  thus,  the  salts  of  nickel 
yield  with  ammonia  a  partial  precipitate  of  a  light-green, 
hydrated  oxide  of  nickel,  readily  soluble  in  excess  of  the 
reagent,  forming  a  deep-blue  solution.  Cobalt  gives  with 
ammonia  a  blue  precipitate,  soluble  in  excess,  and  forming  a 
reddish-brown  liquid.  Sesquioxide  of  chromium  yields  a 
bluish-green  precipitate,  soluble  in  excess,  and  forming  a 
pink  solution. 

(2)  Ferrocyanide  of  potassium  throws  down  in  moderately 
strong  solutions  of  a  salt  of  copper  a  copious  reddish-brown 
precipitate  of  ferrocyanide  of  copper,  insoluble  in  an  excess 
of  the  reagent,  and  also  in  acetic  and  hydrochloric  acids, 
but  sparingly  soluble  in  ammonia  to  a  bluish-green  liquid, 
from  which  it  is  reprecipitated  by  acetic  acid.  If  the  copper 
solution  be  very  dilute,  no  precipitate  may  fall,  although  the 
liquid  will  assume  a  decided  reddish-brown  color.  Accord- 
ing to  our  experience,  this  test  is  even  more  delicate  than  the 


POISONING   BY   COPPER. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  297 

ammonia  test.  Dr.  Wormley  says  that  even  less  than  a  one- 
hundred-thousandth  solution  can  be  detected  by  it.  This 
reagent  will  act  upon  the  violet-blue  solution  produced  by 
ammonia,  provided  it  be  diluted,  and  a  few  drops  of  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  be  added  to  neutralize  the  ammonia:  one 
portion  of  the  liquid  may  thus  be  tried  by  the  two  tests. 

The  salts  of  uranium  also  give  a  reddish-brown  precipitate 
with  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  but  the  uranium  precipitate 
is  changed  to  a  yellow  compound  on  adding  an  excess  of  am- 
monia, while  the  copper  precipitate  is  changed  to  a  bluish-green 
liquid.  Besides,  the  uranium  salt  gives  with  ammonia  a 
yellow  precipitate,  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  the  reagent,  which 
is  totally  different  from  the  behavior  of  a  copper  salt  with 
ammonia.  As  the  salts  of  copper  are  very  apt  to  contain 
iron,  the  presence  of  the  latter  may  modify  the  action  of 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  by  imparting  a  blue  tint  to  the 
precipitate,  so  as  to  disguise  it. 

(3)  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  sulphide  of  ammonium  produce 
in    solutions  of  copper  a  deep  brownish-black   precipitate, 
the  sulphide  of  copper,  even  in  acid  solutions.    If  the  solution 
is  weak,  the  precipitate  has  a  light-brown  color.     This  pre- 
cipitate is  slightly  soluble  in  an  excess  of  sulphide  of  ammo- 
nium, but  insoluble  in  fixed  alkaline  sulphides,  and  in  the 
caustic  alkalies.     It  is  only  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  concen- 
trated nitric  acid,  but  is  readily  dissolved  in  the  hot  acid,  even 
when  somewhat  diluted,  forming  the  blue  nitrate,  together 
with  a  little  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  delicacy  of  this  test  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  two 
former  ones.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  other 
metals  besides  copper  are  precipitated  of  a  brownish  color  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen:  consequently, the  suspected  sulphide 
requires  the  corroborative  proof  by  hot  nitric  acid :  the  re- 
sulting blue  solution  is  to  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  dissolved 
in  pure  water,  and  then  subjected  to  the  foregoing  tests. 

(4)  The   iron   test.  —  This  is  a   simple   and   very   satisfac- 
tory test,  inasmuch  as  it  produces  the  poison  sought,  in  the 
metallic  condition.     It  consists  in  immersing  a  piece  of  bright 
iron  or  steel  in  a  slightly  acidulated  solution  of  a  copper 
salt.     Sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  solu- 


298  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

tion,  the  latter  will  be  decomposed,  metallic  copper  being 
precipitated  upon  the  iron,  while  a  portion  of  the  latter  re- 
places the  copper  in  the  salt,  becoming  combined  with  its 
acid :  thus,  if  it  was  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper, 
there  would  result  a  sulphate  of  iron,  after  the  precipitation 
of  the  copper.  The  thickness  of  the  deposit  of  the  copper, 
and  consequently  the  delicacy  of  the  test,  will  depend  very 
much  upon  the  extent  of  surface  over  which  the  metal  is 
distributed.  Hence,  in  very  dilute  solutions,  only  a  very 
small  surface  of  iron  should  be  exposed :  a  small,  bright 
sewing-needle  answers  well  on  such  occasions.  If  the  needle 
be  left  some  days  in  the  solution,  the  iron  will  be  slowly  re- 
moved, and  a  hollow  cylinder  of  metallic  copper  will  remain. 
This  may  be  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  tested  with 
the  foregoing  tests.  Or  the  coated  needle  may  at  once  be 
immersed  in  a  small  quantity  of  ammonia,  and  exposed  to 
the  air;  the  liquid  then  slowly  becomes  blue.  According  to 
Dr.  Taylor,  half  a  grain  of  sulphate  of  copper  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  water  may  thus  be  easily  detected.  Orfila,  long  ago, 
proposed  to  substitute  phosphorus  for  polished  iron :  this 
substance  effectually  separates  copper  from  its  solutions, 
even  when  in  contact  with  organic  substances. 

(5)  The  galvanic  test. — This  test,  like  the  preceding,  gives 
us  the  copper  in  the  metallic  form.     If  a  few  drops  of  a 
copper  solution,  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid,  be  placed  in  a  platinum  dish,  or  on  platinum- 
foil,  and  a  piece  of  bright  zinc  be  then  introduced,  so  as 
to  touch  the  platinum  through  the  liquid,  metallic  copper 
in  its  well-known  red  color  is  immediately  deposited  on  the 
platinum.     When  the  quantity  of  copper  is  small,  there  is 
merely  a  brown  stain ;  but  on  pouring  a  few  drops  of  am- 
monia upon  it,  and  exposing  it  to  the  air,  a  blue  liquid  is 
slowly  formed.     A  coil  of  fine  platinum  and  zinc  may  be 
substituted  for  the  other  arrangement.     The  copper  deposit 
may  also  be  proven  by  dissolving  it  oft'  the  platinum  by 
means  of  dilute  nitric  acid,  evaporating  to  dryness,  moist- 
ening with  water,  and  testing  as  before  described. 

(6)  The   blowpipe,  as   already   mentioned,  may    be    used 
with  great  certainty  for  identifying  copper  in  the  metallic 


POISONING   BY   COPPER. — ORGANIC   MIXTURES.  299 

state,  in  any  suspected  solid.  A  fragment  of  the  substance, 
previously  mixed  with  an  excess  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
is  placed  upon  a  charcoal  holder,  and  the  inner  flame  of  a 
mouth-blowpipe  is  made  to  play  upon  it.  The  metal  is  re- 
duced ;  and  on  removing  the  cooled  saline  mass  from  the 
charcoal,  pulverizing  in  an  agate  mortar,  and  washing  off 
the  powdered  charcoal,  minute  beads  or  globules  of  the 
metal  are  procured,  having  the  red  color  and  other  charac- 
teristic marks  of  this  metal. 

The  above  tests  are  amply  sufficient  to  establish  the  pres- 
ence of  copper  under  all  circumstances.  Some  others,  how- 
ever, are  mentioned  by  authors,  such  as  potassa,  arsenite  of 
potassa,  ferricyanide  of  potassium,  iodide  of  potassium,  chromate 
of  potash,  etc.,  which  are  of  much  less  value  than  those  be- 
fore described. 

In  organic  mixtures. — The  oxide  of  copper  is  liable  to  be 
precipitated  from  its  salts  by  certain  organic  principles,  such 
as  albumen,  casein,  fibrin,  and  mucous  membrane ;  but,  as  the 
resulting  compounds  are  easily  redissolved  by  acids  and  other 
matters,  we  may  expect  to  find  a  portion,  at  least,  of  the  cop- 
per dissolved.  In  such  cases  the  liquid  is  usually  of  a  bluish 
or  greenish  color,  and  has  a  strong  coppery  or  metallic  taste, 
even  when  the  amount  of  the  copper  salt  is  far  below  the 
poisonous  proportion.  A  portion  of  the  clear  liquid,  after 
concentration,  if  deemed  best,  may  be  tested  by  immersing 
into  it,  previously  acidujated,  a  bright  sewing-needle,  for 
several  hours.  Any  reddish  deposit  upon  it  should  then  be 
tested  as  directed  for  the  iron  test  (p.  297).  It  should  be 
remembered,  in  the  application  of  this  test,  that  the  needle 
may  acquire  a  reddish  coating,  independently  of  the  pres- 
ence of  copper,  simply  of  the  oxide  of  iron;  but  this  may 
usually  be  distinguished  by  means  of  a  hand-lens,  though 
with  greater  certainty  by  means  of  ammonia,  or  nitric  acid 
(see  p.  296).  Another  caution  to  be  observed  in  applying 
the  iron  test  is,  to  avoid  acidulating  the  liquid  too  strongly 
before  immersing  the  iron ;  otherwise  the  deposit  will  be 
black,  and  the  result  unsatisfactory.  If  the  foregoing  trial 
test  reveals  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  copper,  the 
remainder  of  the  liquid  may  be  subjected  to  the  action  of 


300  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  the  precipitated  sulphide  of 
copper  be  decomposed  by  hot  nitric  acid,  and  the  solution 
of  the  nitrate  tested  in  the  manner  before  described. 

If,  however,  the  copper  is  present  in  very  small  quantity, 
probably  the  best  method  of  proceeding  is  to  employ  the 
galvanic  test,  as  follows.  A  portion  of  the  filtered  liquid,  acid- 
ulated with  sulphuric  acid,  is  placed  in  a  platinum  capsule 
or  crucible,  and  a  strip  of  zinc-foil  is  introduced  so  as  to 
touch  the  platinum  successively  over  its  whole  surface.  At 
the  different  points  of  contact,  metallic  copper  is  deposited, 
until  all  the  inside  is  coated  over  with  the  metal.  The  liquid 
is  now  removed,  and  the  capsule  well  washed  out.  The  de- 
posited copper  is  next  dissolved  out  by  dilute  nitric  acid, 
and  the  resulting  solution  tested  as  already  mentioned. 
Should  the  trial  test  just  spoken  of  fail  to  detect  the  presence 
of  copper  in  the  liquid  portion  of  the  material  submitted  to 
examination,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  its  entire  absence. 
Still,  the  solids  separated  from  the  liquid  by  filtration  may  be 
boiled,  with  water  and  a  little  hydrochloric  acid,  for  about 
fifteen  minutes,  and  the  solution  obtained  examined  either 
by  the  iron  test  or  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  sulphate  of  copper,  as 
found  in  commerce,  sometimes  contains  arsenic.  Dr.  Taylor 
states  that  ten  grains  of  the  crystals  will  be  sufficient  to 
yield  evidences  of  this  adulteration.  Even  when  the  sul- 
phate has  been  given  as  an  emetic,  traces  of  arsenic  have 
been  discovered  in  the  matters  vomited,  or  in  the  contents 
of  the  stomach.  (Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed.,  1873,  p.  175.) 

The  stomach  and  its  contents. — The  inside  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  should  always  be  carefully  examined  for  small 
particles  of  the  sulphate  or  acetate  of  copper,  which  are 
indicated  by  bluish  or  greenish  discolorations.  The  contents 
of  the  stomach  having  been  carefully  collected  in  a  clean 
porcelain  dish,  the  inside  may  be  thoroughly  scraped,  and 
the  scrapings  mixed  with  the  contents;  or  the  organ  may 
be  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and  the  whole,  with  the  addition 
of  pure  water,  if  necessary,  strongly  acidulated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  boiled  at  a  gentle  heat  until  the  solid  matters 
are  broken  up.  When  cooled,  the  mass  is  filtered,  the  fil- 


POISONING   BY    COPPER. — IN   THE   TISSUES.  301 

trate  concentrated,  and  again  filtered.  A  polished  sewing- 
needle  may  now  be  used  as  a  trial  test;  or  the  galvanic  test 
(p.  298)  may  be  so  emplo}Ted.  A  stream  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  should  now  be  slowly  passed  through  the  liquid, 
and  the  deposit,  after  standing  for  some  hours,  should  be 
collected  on  a  filter,  well  washed  and  dried,  and  then  dis- 
solved, by  the  aid  of  heat,  with  dilute  nitric  acid.  The 
solution  may  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue  heated 
with  a  little  distilled  water  and  subjected  to  the  appropriate 
tests;  or  a  few  drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  may  be 
added  to  the  nitric  solution,  which  is  then  to  be  evaporated 
to  dryness,  when  the  copper,  if  present,  will  remain  in  the 
form  of  the  sulphate.  On  dissolving  this  in  distilled  water, 
and  filtering,  the  usual  tests  may  be  applied. 

If  the  precipitate  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  contains  much 
organic  matter,  the  latter  must  be  got  rid  of  before  the 
final  testing.  To  this  end,  the  residue  obtained  after  solu- 
tion in  nitric  acid  and  evaporation  to  dryness  is  moistened 
with  concentrated  nitric  acid,  and  heated  until  the  organic 
matter  is  entirely  destroyed.  If  necessary,  the  process  should 
be  repeated.  The  dry  mass  is  now  treated  with  a  little  dilute 
nitric  acid,  again  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue  dissolved 
in  pure  water,  and  the  tests  applied  as  before. 

Detection  in  the  tissues. — Copper  has  been  detected  in  the 
different  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body,  after  administration, 
by  various  observers.  It  remains  in  the  organs  much  longer 
than  arsenic  and  some  of  the  other  poisons, — as  long  as  sixty 
days  in  the  liver  and  lungs,  according  to  M.  L.  Ortila.  It  is 
eliminated  by  the  urine  from  the  commencement  of  the  active 
symptoms,  but  disappears  from  this  secretion  very  soon  after 
it  has  ceased  to  be  taken;  in  which  respect  also  it  offers  a 
contrast  with  arsenic. 

In  the  examination  of  the  organs  for  absorbed  copper,  dif- 
ferent methods  are  recommended.  The  object  in  all  of  them 
is  to  effect  the  complete  destruction  of  the  organic  matter ; 
and,  as  copper  is  not  a  volatile  metal,  this  can  readily  be  ac- 
complished without  danger  of  loss.  A  portion  of  the  liver, 
for  example,  should  be  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  thoroughly 
dried,  and  incinerated  in  a  porcelain  capsule;  the  residuary 

20 


302  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ash  should  be  digested  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid  by  heat, 
and  then  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness.  The  residue  may  be 
dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  pure  water,  and  examined 
by  the  usual  tests,  particularly  by  the  polished  needle. 

Or,  the  solid  matter,  in  pieces,  may  be  mixed  with  nitric 
acid  diluted  with  several  volumes  of  water,  and  the  mixture 
gently  heated,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  chlorate  of 
potassa,  until  the  destruction  of  the  organic  matter  has  been 
accomplished,  as  indicated  by  the  liquid  becoming  perfectly 
clear.  It  should  then  be  diluted  with  water,  and,  after  cool- 
ing, be  filtered,  and  evaporated  to  dryness.  The  residue 
contains  the  copper,  if  present,  as  a  nitrate,  mixed  with  some 
organic  matter.  This  is  again  put  into  a  porcelain  capsule, 
covered  with  pure  nitric  acid,  along  with  chlorate  of  potassa, 
and  moderately  heated  until  it  is  perfectly  dry;  the  heat 
is  then  urged  to  redness  until  the  organic  matter  is  com- 
pletely destroyed,  when  the  mass  becomes  almost  white. 
On  boiling  this  residue  in  nitric  acid,  slightly  diluted,  any 
copper  present,  together  with  the  iron,  which  is  usually  found 
in  minute  quantities,  will  be  taken  up  as  nitrate.  The  solu- 
tion should  now  be  carefully  evaporated,  to  expel  the  excess 
of  nitric  acid,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  a  little  warm 
water,  and  tested.  If  it  is  desired  to  get  rid  of  the  iron  that 
may  be  present,  this  metal  may  be  separated  by  adding  to 
the  final  solution  ammonia  in  excess,  which  will  precipitate 
the  oxide  of  iron  and  leave  the  copper  in  the  deep-blue  solu- 
tion. On  filtering,  and  adding  acetic  acid  to  the  filtrate,  and 
afterwards  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  the  characteristic  red- 
dish-brown ferrocyanide  of  copper  will  be  precipitated.  Or, 
the  iron  may  be  separated  by  acidifying  the  final  solution 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  transmitting  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen through  it:  all  the  copper  will  be  precipitated  as  a  sul- 
phide, while  the  iron  will  remain  in  the  solution. 

Tardieu  recommends  to  char  the  organs  to  be  examined,  by 
means  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  and  heat,  in  a  porcelain  capsule; 
the  heat  to  be  applied  by  means  of  a  sand-bath,  and  urged 
until  the  bottom  of  the  crucible  is  red-hot.  The  resulting 
carbonaceous  mass  is  finely  powdered  after  cooling,  and 
treated  with  pure  nitric  acid,  and  evaporated  at  a  gentle 


POISONING    BY   COPPER. — IN   THE    URINE.  303 

heat;  the  residue  is  diluted  with  water,  and  filtered;  the 
filtrate  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  heated,  to  expel  all  the 
nitric  acid,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric  acid. 
Finally,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  transmitted  through  this 
solution,  and  the  precipitate  dried,  treated  with  a  few  drops 
of  nitre-muriatic  acid,  in  a  porcelain  capsule,  and  evaporated 
to  dryness.  Solution  of  ammonia  is  now  added,  which  will 
receive  a  blue  coloration  if  copper  be  present,  unless  in 
excessively  minute  quantity:  this  solution  is  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  residue  treated  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid.  This  last  solution  should  respond  to  all  the  charac- 
teristic tests  for  copper. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  worth  while  to  notice  an  obser- 
vation of  Tardieu  (Sur  I'Empoisonnement,  p.  544)  in  relation 
to  the  employment  of  a  porcelain  crucible  in  preference 
to  one  of  platinum,  in  the  foregoing  investigations.  This 
author  noticed  that  when  beef's  blood  (and  doubtless  other 
animal  matters)  was  incinerated  in  a  platinum  crucible,  and 
treated  with  nitric  acid,  etc.,  and  the  resulting  solution  was 
brought  in  contact  with  a  rod  of  polished  iron,  a  reddish  and 
somewhat  brilliant  deposit  was  made  upon  the  iron,  resem- 
bling copper  in  appearance.  This  does  not  occur  if  the 
experiment  be  performed  in  &  porcelain  capsule.  M.  Tardieu 
accounts  for  it  by  suggesting  that  probably  the  nitric  acid, 
reacting  upon  the  chlorides  present  in  the  animal  matters, 
develops  aqua  regia,  which  dissolves  a  little  of  the  platinum; 
and  that  the  colored  deposit  on  the  iron  is  due  to  this  metal. 
A  natural  inference  from  the  above  is,  to  avoid  the  use 
of  platinum  in  this  method  of  research  for  copper  in  the 
tissues  ;  and  likewise  not  to  conclude  that  copper  is  present 
merely  because  the  polished  iron  receives  a  reddish  deposit 
from  the  suspected  liquid. 

Detection  in  the  urine. — About  six  ounces  of  the  suspected 
urine  are  evaporated  to  dryness  ;  and  the  residue  treated  with 
strong  nitric  acid  and  chlorate  of  potash,  with  the  aid  of  heat, 
to  complete  incineration.  The  resulting  ash  will  contain  the 
copper  present,  together  with  any  iron  :  this  is  dissolved  out 
by  hot  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  the  liquid  evaporated  to  dry- 


304  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ness.     The  residue  is  dissolved  in  warm  distilled  water,  and 
the  solution  tested  in  the  usual  way. 

In  relation  to  the  question  whether  copper  exists  in  the 
human  body  as  a  normal  constituent,  the  weight  of  modern 
authorities  is  decidedly  opposed  to  it.  M.  Tardieu  informs 
us  that  his  colleague,  M.  Roussin,  experimented  upon  the 
body  of  a  soldier  suddenly  killed  in  Algeria,  with  a  view  of 
determining  the  presence  of  normal  copper  in  the  tissues  and 
organs,  but  with  negative  results  (loc.  cit.,  p.  543).  This  metal 
does  undoubtedly  exist  in  minute  quantities  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom :  its  presence  here  has  been  ascribed  to  the  soil  in 
which  the  plants  were  grown.  This  would  suggest  the  idea 
that  it  is  an  accidental,  rather  than  a  normal,  constituent  even 
of  plants.  At  all  events,  the  discovery  of  mere  traces  of 
copper  in  the  human  body  after  death  ought  never  to  be 
assumed  as  indicating  copper-poisoning,  unless  the  strongest 
evidence  of  this  had  been  afforded  by  the  symptoms,  the 
morbid  lesions,  and  the  circumstances  attending  the  case. 
As  we  have  seen,  copper  may  so  easily  and  unknowingly  be 
introduced  into  the  system,  through  the  food,  and  by  other 
means,  that  an  opinion  of  poisoning,  based  simply  upon  such 
slender  grounds,  would  be  altogether  premature  and  unwar- 
ranted. 

Quantitative  estimate. — Use  for  this  purpose  the  precipitated 
sulphide,  which  is  to  be  dried  and  dissolved  in  hot,  dilute 
nitric  acid.  To  the  boiling  solution  liquor  potassse  is  added 
as  long  as  the  oxide  is  precipitated,  after  which  the  boiling 
is  continued  for  some  time.  After  cooling,  the  precipitated 
black  oxide  is  separated  from  the  supernatant  liquid  by  de- 
cantation,  collected  on  a  filter  of  known  weight,  thoroughly 
washed  with  warm  water,  and  dried.  It  is  then  separated, 
as  far  as  practicable,  from  the  filter,  and  strongly  ignited  in 
a  platinum  capsule;  and  the  ash  of  the  filter,  burned  sepa- 
rately, is  added  to  it;  and,  after  cooling,  the  whole  is  weighed. 
Every  100  parts  of  the  anhydrous  protoxide  represent  314.21 
parts  of  pure  crystallized  sulphate  of  copper. 


POISONING    BY    LEAD.  305 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

POISONING    BY   LEAD. 

IN  its  metallic  state,  lead  appears  to  be  destitute  of  poison- 
ous properties.  But  as  it  is  readily  acted  upon  by  the  animal 
secretions  and  other  matters  found  in  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
it  undergoes  oxidizement,  when  swallowed,  and  is  converted 
into  soluble,  poisonous  compounds.  All  the  salts  of  this 
metal  are  more  or  less  poisonous  with  perhaps,  the  single 
exception  of  the  sulphate,  which  is  very  insoluble. 

Cases  of  acute  poisoning  by  the  salts  of  lead  are  very  rare : 
those  that  have  occurred  were  chiefly  due  to  accident.  The 
acetate  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  these  salts,  and  has  been 
the  most  frequent  cause  of  acute  poisoning. 

Slow  or  chronic  lead-poisoning,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of 
very  frequent  occurrence.  Of  all  the  metals,  none  is  so  con- 
stantly and  insidiously  introduced  into  the  human  system  as 
lead,  under  various  forms :  it  even  surpasses  copper  in  this 
respect.  In  the  arts,  numerous  classes  of  workmen  are  ex- 
posed to  chronic  lead-poisoning :  thus,  smelters  of  lead-ores 
inhale  the  fumes  of  the  oxide;  manufacturers  of  white  and 
red  lead  receive  it  into  their  lungs  in  the  dry  powders  of  the 
carbonate  and  red  oxide;  the  workmen  who  whiten  Brussels 
lace  by  beating  white  lead  into  the  fibre,  constantly  breathe 
an  atmosphere  of  the  poisonous  carbonate,  and  often  die 
from  its  effects ;  manufacturers  of  glazed  cards  suffer  from 
the  same  cause.  Painters,  plumbers,  pewterers,  and  glazers 
of  pottery  are  all  very  much  exposed  to  the  same  danger, — 
the  former  from  inhaling  the  vapor  of  the  oil  of  turpentine 
impregnated  with  the  carbonate  of  lead ;  the  latter,  by  the 
oxide  employed  in  the  glaze.  Even  sleeping  in  a  freshly- 
painted  room  has  been  known  to  cause  violent  symptoms  of 
colica  pictouum,and  even  paralysis,  in  consequence, no  doubt, 
of  the  volatile  emanations  containing  the  carbonate  of  lead. 


306  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  434)  alludes  to  himself  as  having 
suffered  from  severe  colic  though  respiring  the  vapor  of  fresh 
paint.  To  show  the  frequency  of  this  kind  of  poisoning, 
Dr.  Clemens  states  that  in  ten  years  there  were  1898  cases  of 
chronic  poisoning  by  lead  among  workmen  admitted  into  the 
hospitals  of  Paris;  and  out  of  1330  cases  received  in  five 
years,  655  were  among  workers  in  white  lead  and  painters. 
(Casper's  Viertelj.,  1853,  ii.  p.  177,  quoted  hy  Taylor.)  The 
frequent  handling  of  pewter  vessels,  and  also  of  new  type, 
has  been  known  to  produce  lead-palsy :  in  the  latter  case  the 
paralysis  was  purely  local,  being  confined  to  the  right  hand. 
The  sharp  edges  of  the  type  caused  abrasions  of  the  thumb 
and  fingers,  a  condition  favorable  to  absorption.  In  the 
course  of  a  week  the  paralysis  was  so  complete  that  the 
hand  dropped,  and  could  not  be  voluntarily  raised.  There 
was  also  a  faint  blue  line  at  the  edge  of  the  gums.  (Jour, 
de  Chimie,  July,  1858,  p.  434 ;  quoted  by  Taylor.) 

In  domestic  and  culinary  use,  numerous  cases  occur  of 
slow  and  accidental  poisoning  by  lead.  One  of  the  most 
common  examples  is  that  afforded  by  the  use  of  glazed  pot- 
tery vessels.  The  inside  glaze  of  these  vessels  is  readily 
acted  upon  by  ordinary  acids,  as  vinegar,  also  by  fats  and 
oils,  and  likewise  by  alkalies.  As  vessels  of  this  character  are 
extensively  used  to  contain  various  kinds  of  food,  the  oxide 
of  the  glaze  is  more  or  less  dissolved,  and  is  taken  into  the 
system  along  with  the  food.  Dr.  Taylor  mentions  an  in- 
stance where  milk  was  so  much  contaminated  by  being  kept 
in  glazed  earthen  pans,  as  to  produce  violent  symptoms  of 
colic,  with  vomiting,  in  four  men  who  partook  of  it  along 
with  rhubarb-pie.  In  the  matters  vomited,  lead  was  detected 
(loc.  cit.,  p.  447). 

Cider  and  beer,  if  drawn  through  leaden  pipes,  acquire 
poisonous  properties,  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  the 
malate  or  the  carbonate  of  lead,  which,  although  insoluble, 
may  be  diffused  through  the  liquid  and  so  be  taken  into  the 
stomach.  In  some  cases  of  the  latter  character,  lead  has 
been  detected  in  the  urine  of  the  person  using  the  beverage. 
Sometimes  shot  are  employed  to  clean  out  wine-bottles,  and, 
through  carelessness,  are  not  always  removed  before  refilling 


POISONING   BY   LEAD. — ACCIDENTAL.  307 

the  bottles  with  wine.  In  such  cases  the  wine,  even  if  of  the 
better  qualities  (port  and  sherry),  will  after  a  time  become 
more  or  less  impregnated  with  the  resulting  salts  of  lead 
(principally  the  carbonate).  So  long  as  the  wine  is  not  agi- 
tated, this  crust  remains  at  the  bottom,  and  the  wine  may  be 
drunk  with  impunity.  Domestic  wines,  such  as  those  made 
from  the  currant,  gooseberry,  etc.,  contain  much  acid,  and 
act  readily  upon  the  leaden  shot  in  the  bottles,  speedily 
becoming  contaminated  with  the  poisonous  salts  of  lead. 

New  rum  is  apt  to  contain  lead,  derived  from  the  leaden 
worm  of  the  still ;  while  old  rum,  curiously  enough,  is  free 
from  this  adulteration.  Dr.  Traill  ascribes  this  difference, 
with  great  plausibility,  to  the  fact  that  the  old  rum,  being 
kept  in  oak  casks,  is  deprived  of  its  lead  by  the  tannic  acid 
contained  in  the  oak,  which  precipitates  it  in  an  insoluble 
form.  A  most  reprehensible  practice  formerly  prevailed  in 
France  and  England  of  adding  litharge  (protoxide  of  lead) 
to  sour  wines  for  the  purpose  of  sweetening  them :  this 
proved  to  be  a  very  prolific  source  of  lead-poisoning.  Even 
distilled  water  has  been  found  to  be  impregnated  with  lead, 
when  pipes  of  this  metal  have  been  used  for  condensing  the 
vapor.  In  this  way,  also,  such  aromatic  oils  as  are  prepared 
by  distilling  the  plants  along  with  water,  may  become  con- 
taminated with  lead. 

Certain  medicinal  substances  are  frequently  found  to  contain 
lead,  which  has  been  derived  from  their  mode  of  manufac- 
ture. Thus,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  sublimed  in  leaden 
vessels;  borax  and  other  salts  when  crystallized  in  leaden 
pans;  tar taric acid,  according  to  M.  Chevallier,  from  the  em- 
ployment of  lead  to  sink  the  strings  in  the  crystallizing  solu- 
tions ;  and  acetic  acid,  which,  according  to  Dr.  Taylor,  has 
been  found  to  contain  as  much  as  two  per  cent,  of  acetate  of 
lead.  Solutions  of  potash  and  soda,  as  is  well  known,  when 
kept  in  flint-glass  bottles,  soon  become  contaminated  with 
lead ;  and  commercial  oil  of  vitriol  nearly  always  contains 
sulphate  of  lead,  derived  from  the  leaden  chambers. 

Various  substances  extensively  used  in  the  domestic  econ- 
omy are  found  to  be  occasionally  contaminated  with  lead, 
such  as  flour,  sugar,  snuff,  tobacco,  chocolate,  etc.  A  curi- 


308  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ous  source  of  the  adulteration  of  flour  with  lead  was  traced 
to  the  grinding  of  the  wheat :  a  portion  of  the  machinery 
had  been  stopped  with  lead  cement  and  covered  with  plaster; 
the  latter  had  given  way,  and  the  salt  of  lead,  which  fell  out, 
had  been  ground  up  with  the  flour.  (Jour,  de  Chim.,  1857, 
p.  278.)  A  similar  instance  is  mentioned  in  Taylor's  Med. 
Jurisp.  (Am.  ed.,  1873,  p.  173):  whole  families,  in  one  of  the 
counties  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  the  year  1866,  were 
poisoned  by  the  use  of  flour  manufactured  at  a  mill  the 
owner  of  which  had  been  in  the  habit  of  filling  the  cavities 
of  the  millstones  with  lead.  Refined  sugar  may  contain 
traces  of  lead  derived  from  the  painted  cones  into  which 
the  syrup  is  poured.  Snuft'  is  often  adulterated  with  red 
lead  and  chromate  of  lead  to  improve  its  color.  Dr.  Hassall 
detected  out  of  forty-three  samples  of  popular  kinds  of  snufi', 
chromate  of  lead  in  nine,  and  oxide  of  lead  in  three  sam- 
ples (Food  and  its  Adulterations,  p.  591).  The  danger  of 
using  such  snuflT  is  very  great,  causing  paralysis,  wasting, 
and  even  death.  (See  Taylor  on  Poisons,  p.  449.) 

The  practice  of  using  an  article  termed  patent  tin-foil  as  a 
wrapper  for  tobacco,  chocolate,  bonbons,  and  farinaceous 
food  for  infants,  has  been  attended  with  dangerous  conse- 
quences. This  foil  is  composed  chiefly  of  lead,  with  a  very 
thin  outer  coating  of  tin.  When  exposed  to  damp,  this  me- 
tallic alloy  undergoes  changes,  resulting  in  the  production  of 
carbonate  of  lead,  which  impregnates  the  articles  in  contact 
with  it.  In  France,  the  use  of  this  spurious  tin-foil  has  been 
interdicted,  under  a  heavy  penalty. 

The  external  application  of  lead  and  its  preparations  is 
known  to  produce  serious  results.  The  effects  of  constant 
handling  of  pewter  vessels  and  new  type  have  already  been 
alluded  to.  Hair-dyes  and  cosmetics  notoriously  contain  lead, 
and  have  frequently  occasioned  paralysis,  ophthalmia,  and 
other  unpleasant  symptoms.  A  case  is  reported  by  Galtier, 
where  a  lead-plaster  applied  to  an  ulcer  on  the  leg  occa- 
sioned chronic  lead-poisoning. 

A  case  is  reported  in  the  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chi- 
rurgical  Review  (Oct.,  1857,  p.  525),  where  the  external  ap- 
plication of  white  lead  to  a  scalded  surface,  as  a  dressing, 


POISONING   BY   LEAD. — ACTION   OF   WATER.  809 

produced  unmistakable  symptoms  of  lead-colic — such  as  acute 
abdominal  pain,  retraction  of  the  umbilicus,  constipation,  and 
discoloration  of  the  gums. 

It  is,  however,  chiefly  through  drinking-water  that  lead 
proves  such  a  frequent  and  unsuspected  cause  of  accidental 
poisoning.  The  conditions  under  which  this  result  is  brought 
about  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  medical  jurist, 
as  well  as  by  the  physician.  It  has  been  ascertained  that 
absolutely  pure  water  (containing  no  atmospheric  air)  has 
no  action  upon  bright  lead,  if  kept  out  of  the  air,  in  a  her- 
metically-sealed tube ;  but  the  same  water,  if  exposed  to  the 
air,  soon  deposits  a  milky  Him  upon  the  surface  of  the  metal, 
which  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  becomes  a  collec- 
tion of  pearly  scales,  either  loosely  adhering  to  the  lead,  or 
collected  as  a  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  This 
compound  is  a  mixture  of  the  hydrated  oxide  and  the  car- 
bonate of  lead.  Although  this  compound  is  not  soluble  in 
the  water,  it  is  nevertheless  diffused  through  it,  and  renders 
it  highly  poisonous  for  drinking  purposes.  Rain  and  snow 
water  are  the  purest  of  all  natural  waters :  they  are  destitute 
of  saline  ingredients,  resembling  in  this  respect  artificially 
distilled  water.  Consequently,  when  such  waters  are  col- 
lected from  a  leaden  roof,  or  are  kept  in  leaden  cisterns,  or 
are  conveyed  through  leaden  pipes,  they  soon  become  con- 
taminated by  lead,  and  acquire  very  poisonous  properties. 
A  notable  instance  of  this  is  alluded  to  by  Sir  R.  Christison 
(On  Poisons,  p.  526)  as  having  occurred  in  Amsterdam. 
Previous  to  the  use  of  lead  instead  of  tiles  for  the  roofs  of 
the  houses,  lead-colic  was  of  very  rare  occurrence;  but 
after  the  introduction  of  leaden  roofs  the  disease  prevailed 
very  extensively,  and  was  of  great  violence,  in  consequence 
of  the  habitual  use  of  the  rain-water  which  fell  from,  the 
roofs.  Instances  like  the  above  are  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence, and  they  ought  to  serve  as  a  warning  against  the 
dangerous  practice  of  employing  rain-water  that  has  in  any 
way  been  in  contact  with  lead. 

As  regards  the  action  of  spring  and  river  waters  upon  me- 
tallic lead,  very  much  will  depend  upon  the  purity  of  the 
water, — i.e.  the  amount  and  the  nature  of  its  saline  ingredients : 


310  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  purer  the  water,  the  greater  the  liability  to  contamina- 
tion, and  vice  versa.  This  will  be  better  understood  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  presence  of  certain  salts  in  the  water 
— particularly  sulphates,  carbonates,  and  chlorides — determines 
the  speedy  production  of  the  corresponding  salts  of  lead, 
which,  being  insoluble,  form  an  incrustation  upon  the  surface 
of  the  metal,  that  completely  protects  it  from  further  chem- 
ical action,  and  thus  acts  as  a  preservative  against  future 
contamination  by  the  metal.  If  the  inside  of  a  leaden  pipe, 
through  which  spring  or  river  water  has  been  flowing  for  a 
long  time,  be  inspected,  it  will  be  found  coated  over  with  a 
whitish  incrustation  composed  of  one  or  more  of  these  salts 
of  lead.  The  water  supplied  to  Tunbridge,  England,  in  the 
year  1815,  was  conveyed  through  leaden  pipes,  and  produced 
an  outbreak  of  lead-colic  in  that  town.  This  water  was  found, 
on  analysis,  to  be  remarkably  pure,  containing  only  about 
one  thirty-eight-thousandth  part  of  its  weight  of  solid  in- 
gredients, three-fourths  of  which  were  a  feebly-protecting 
salt — the  chloride  of  sodium.  On  the  other  hand,  the  waters 
which  may  be  conveyed  through  leaden  pipes  without  risk 
are  such  as  contain  a  much  larger  proportion  of  saline  con- 
stituents,— sufficient  to  produce  the  deposit  on  the  surface, 
just  mentioned.  This  is,  fortunately,  the  case  with  the  great 
majority  of  rivers  and  springs :  hence  the  immunity  from 
danger  to  those  using  such  waters,  although  these  are  con- 
veyed to  their  houses  through  lead  pipes.  According  to 
Christison,  the  water  of  Edinburgh,  although  containing  but 
about  one  twelve-thousandth  part  of  solid  matter,  is  almost 
entirely  protected  from  the  action  of  lead.  The  river  Thames 
contains  about  seventeen  grains  of  saline  matter  to  the  gal- 
lon, and  is  remarkably  free  from  any  action  of  lead.  The 
Claremont  water,  which  contains  only  five  grains  of  salines 
to  the  gallon  (of  which  one-half  is  chloride  of  sodium),  pro- 
duced a  very  severe  form  of  lead-colic  in  the  course  of  a  few 
months,  in  a  number  of  persons  who  drank  them.  The 
water  of  the  river  Schuylkill,  which  chiefly  supplies  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  contains  from  six  to  eight  grains  of  saline 
matters  to  the  gallon:  it  has  never  been  known  to  produce 
lead-poisoning,  although  conveyed  through  leaden  pipes. 


POISONING    BY   ACETATE    OF    LEAD.  311 

The  salines  which  are  most'protective  to  the  water  are  the 
sulphates;  next  to  these,  the  carbonates;  and  last,  the  chlorides. 
It  has  been  found  that  while  certain  waters  may  be  preserved 
in  leaden  cisterns  with  impunity,  if  these  be  covered  with 
leaden  lids  the  latter  will  become  coated  with  an  incrustation 
of  carbonate  of  lead,  arising  from  the  contact  of  the  vapor  of 
water  (which  may  be  considered  as  distilled  water)  with  the 
surface  of  the  metal.  This  may  in  time  fall  into  the  cistern, 
and  so  contaminate  the  water.  It  is  quite  possible  that  some 
instances  of  rapid  corrosion  of  lead  in  contact  with  water 
containing  salines,  are  due  to  a  galvanic  action.  The  presence 
of  small  portions  of  other  metals  in  the  lead  would  be  quite 
sufficient  to  set  up  such  an  action  ;  as,  for  example,  where 
sheets  of  lead  are  connected  together  by  solder. 

ACETATE  OF  LEAD. — SUGAR  OF  LEAD. — This  salt  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  the  preparations  of  lead  which  occa- 
sion acute  poisoning.  It  commonly  occurs  in  heavy  crys- 
talline masses ;  white,  or  nearly  so ;  somewhat  resembling 
loaf-sugar  in  appearance,  for  which  it  has  been  mistaken. 
It  has  an  acetous  odor,  and  a  sweetish,  astringent  taste;  it  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  producing  with  ordinary  water  a  milky 
solution,  owing  to  the  carbonic  acid  contained.  It  is  less 
soluble  in  alcohol. 

Sugar  of  lead  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  very  active  poison. 
It  is  frequently  given  in  medical  practice  to  the  extent  of 
twenty  grains,  or  more,  daily,  without  injurious  effects; 
although  the  continuation  of  such  quantities  for  many  days 
would  be  likely  to  bring  on  the  specific  action  of  lead.  In 
doses  of  one  or  two  ounces  the  symptoms  are  as  follows  :  a 
burning  and  pricking  pain  in  the  throat  and  gullet,  thirst, 
vomiting,  colic  pains,  with  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  and 
obstinate  constipation ;  retraction  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen; 
cramps ;  cold  sweats ;  and,  in  fatal  cases,  convulsions  and  te- 
tanic spasms.  The  urinary  secretion  is  generally  diminished. 
Occasionally  there  is  a  variation  in  some  of  the  above  symp- 
toms :  thus,  in  some  instances  there  is  severe  and  bloody 
purging;  again,  the  discharges  from  the  bowels  are  hard,  dry, 
and  of  a  black  color.  The  pulse  is  usually  slow  and  feeble,  but 


312  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

sometimes  quickened.  The  intellect  generally  remains  clear. 
Should  the  case  be  protracted,  there  would  likely  be  cramps 
in  the  legs,  pain  in  the  insides  of  the  thighs,  numbness,  and 
sometimes  paralysis  of  the  limbs.  Other  acute  nervous 
symptoms  occasionally  observed  are  giddiness,  torpor,  and 
even  coma.  The  peculiar  blue  line  upon  the  gums,  which 
is  so  generally  attendant  upon  chronic  lead-poisoning,  may 
also  be  sometimes  noticed  in  acute  cases. 

Fatal  dose. — In  the  few  fatal  cases  reported,  the  quantity 
taken  could  not  be  accurately  determined.  Instances  are 
mentioned  where  an  ounce  was  swallowed  with  impunity; 
but,  as  a  rule,  this  quantity  would  be  very  apt  to  be  followed 
by  dangerous,  if  not  fatal,  consequences. 

Fatal  period. — Dr.  Taylor  mentions  two  cases  where  a 
solution  of  the  subacetate  (Goulard's  extract)  taken  by  two 
children  respectively,  in  unknown  doses,  destroyed  life  within 
thirty-six  hours.  The  symptoms,  at  first,  resembled  those  of 
Asiatic  cholera, — there  being  violent  vomiting  and  purging. 
(On  Poisons,  p.  430.)  Dr.  Beck  refers  to  a  case  of  a  soldier 
who  swallowed  an  unknown  quantity  of  sugar  of  lead  in 
solution :  he  was  soon  seized  with  violent  symptoms,  indi- 
cating gastro-enteric  irritation,  and  died  in  great  agony  at 
the  end  of  three  days.  Another  case  is  quoted  by  Sir  R. 
Christisou  (On  Poisons,  p.  430):  an  unknown  quantity  of 
Goulard's  extract  was  swallowed  by  a  soldier  ;  on  the  second 
day  he  was  affected  with  loss  of  appetite,  paleness,  costive- 
ness,  and  extreme  debility ;  on  the  third  day  he  had  severe 
colic,  retraction  of  the  abdomen,  loss  of  voice,  cold  sweats, 
trismus,  and  convulsions;  he  died  before  the  close  of  the 
same  day. 

Treatment. — In  cases  of  acute  poisoning  by  acetate  of  lead, 
free  emesis  should  be  excited  by  sulphate  of  zinc,  which, 
besides  evacuating  the  stomach,  acts  an tidotally  by  convert- 
ing the  poison  into  the  insoluble  sulphate  of  lead.  This  may 
be  followed  by  copious  draughts  of  milk  and  white  of  egg, 
as  both  casein  and  albumen  form  insoluble  compounds  with 
oxide  of  lead.  The  stomach-pump  may  be  occasionally  em- 
ployed with  benefit.  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  sulphate  of 
eoda,  should  then  be  administered,  with  the  twofold  purpose 


POISONING   BY  ACETATE   OF   LEAD. — LEAD   COLIC.          313 

of  acting  as  an  antidote  and  as  a  cathartic.  Castor  oil  and 
croton  oil  have  also  been  recommended  as  purgatives.  M. 
Bouchardat  has  proposed  the  hydrated  persulphide  of  iron  as 
a  good  chemical  antidote.  The  urine  should  be  frequently 
examined,  for  the  purpose  of  tracing  the  disappearance  of  the 
poison  from  the  body. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — According  to  Dr.  Taylor,  the 
lesions  observed  in  cases  of  acute  lead-poisoning  are  very 
characteristic.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  and  bowels 
is  covered  with  a  thick  white  or  whitish-yellow  layer  of 
mucus  mixed  with  a  salt  of  lead,  beneath  which  the  mem- 
brane is  reddened,  or  ecchymosed.  In  some  cases  this 
membrane  has  been  found  abraded  in  several  places,  par- 
ticularly near  the  pylorus,  and  other  parts  of  the  stomach 
have  been  in  a  state  of  high  inflammation.  It  appears  that 
it  is  the  neutral  salt  alone  which  acts  as  a  corrosive,  this 
effect  not  being  manifested  when  the  acetate  is  combined 
with  an  acid.  The  intestines  are  sometimes  much  con- 
tracted. It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  acute  poisoning 
by  lead  may  result  fatally,  without  leaving  behind  any  very 
noticeable  pathological  changes. 

CHRONIC  POISONING. — Symptoms. — Deleterious  effects  are 
more  frequently  observed  from  the  slow  and  insidious  in- 
troduction of  lead  into  the  system,  than  in  the  case  of  any 
other  metal.  Chronic  poisoning  may  result  from  any  of  the 
preparations  of  lead,  but  is  most  commonly  traceable  to  the 
carbonate  (white  lead)  and  litharge,  in  the  artisans  connected 
with  lead-works,  or  to  the  accidental  impregnation  of  drink- 
ing-water and  other  beverages,  or  of  articles  of  food.  These 
effects  first  show  themselves  in  lead  colic,  and  subsequently  in 
lead  palsy. 

Lead  colic  (colica  pictonum,  or  painter's  colic]  is  characterized 
by  excruciating  pain  in  the  abdomen  around  the  umbilicus, 
which  is  generally  relieved  by  pressure.  The  abdomen  is 
hard,  its  muscles  strongly  contracted,  and  its  walls  more  or 
less  drawn  inwards  ;  the  bowels  are  usually  obstinately  con- 
stipated, though  often  attended  with  a  feeling  of  desire  for 
their  evacuation.  Scanty  evacuations  are  sometimes  passed, 
with  much  suffering.  The  urine  is  scanty,  and  voided  with 


314  MANUAL    OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

difficulty.  The  countenance  is  dull  and  anxious;  the  skin 
bedewed  with  cold  perspiration ;  the  pulse  either  about 
natural,  or  else  accelerated ;  the  breathing  quick  and  catch- 
ing; fever  is  very  rare;  there  is  loss  of  appetite,  and  dryness 
of  the  mouth  and  throat.  The  skin  is  dry  and  icterode,  and 
there  is  often  a  metallic  or  astringent  taste  in  the  mouth. 
The  breath  is  fetid.  The  blue  or  saturnine  line  at  the  edge  of 
the  gums,  first  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Burton,  is  nearly  always 
observed  in  cases  of  chronic  lead-poisoning.  This  discolor- 
ation is  ascribed,  with  great  plausibility,  to  the  elimination 
of  the  poison  in  the  buccal  secretions,  in  the  form  of  the 
dark-colored  sulphuret.  It  is  said  to  be  most  marked  around 
the  upper  incisors.  Although  this  blue  line  is  a  valuable 
indication  of  lead-poisoning,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it 
occasionally  occurs  as  the  result  of  the  introduction  into  the 
system  of  other  metals,  as  mercury  and  silver.  Moreover, 
cases  of  undoubted  poisoning  by  lead  do  occur  where  this 
sign  is  altogether  wanting:  so  that,  while  its  presence  may 
generally  be  regarded  as  indicative  of  lead-poisoning,  its 
absence  is  no!  to  be  taken  as  a  proof  that  this  poison  is  not 
in  the  system.  In  some  cases  in  which  the  blue  line  has 
been  absent,  the  gums  have  presented  a  fungous  appearance, 
and  have  bled  very  easily.  (Med.  Times  and  Gaz.,  Jan.  30, 
1858.) 

The  earliest  period  at  which  this  blue  line  on  the  gums 
first  shows  itself  is  not  ascertained.  Dr.  Burton  states  that 
he  has  seen  it  produced  in  twenty-four  hours  after  giving  four 
doses,  of  five  grains  each,  of  acetate  of  lead  ;  and  he  thinks 
that  it  would  occur  still  earlier,  if  larger  doses  were  taken. 
When  it  is  once  established,  it  is  very  persistent.  Instances 
are  mentioned  of  its  presence  being  still  visible  four  ycurs 
after  exposure  to  the  source  of  poisoning  had  ceased.  (Med. 
Times  and  Gaz.,  1848,  p.  195;  quoted  by  Taylor.) 

Lead-colic  may  terminate  in  recovery,  or  it  may  pass  on  to 
the  second  form  of  chronic  poisoning — kad-palsy.  This  is 
sometimes  the  termination  of  a  single  attack  of  colic;  but 
more  commonly  it  supervenes  after  repeated  seizures.  Again, 
it  may  come  on  without  any  previous  attack  of  colic.  It 
affects  chiefly  the  upper  extremities.  There  is  first  a  dull, 


'CHRONIC   POISONING   BY   LEAD.  315 

numb  feeling  in  the  skin,  especially  of  the  lingers  and  fore- 
arms; trembling  of  the  arms  and  legs,  unsteadiness  in  walk- 
ing, loss  of  power  in  the  hands  and  arms,  which  gradually 
waste  away.  This  loss  of  muscular  power  is  chiefly  confined 
to  the  extensors  of  the  hand,  so  that  when  the  arm  is  raised 
the  hand  drops  by  its  own  weight :  whence  the  common  ex- 
pression "  wrist-drop,"  or  "  hand-drop."  Symptoms  of  brain- 
affection  sometimes  present  themselves,  such  as  giddiness, 
torpor,  and  apoplexy.  In  cases  which  pursue  a  slow  course 
to  death,  the  paralysis  may  gradually  extend  to  all  the 
muscles;  epileptic  paroxysms  occur  at  intervals,  and  there  is 
general  oedema,  with  whitened  skin,  indicating  the  increas- 
ing anaemia.  Sometimes  the  case  is  further  complicated  with 
albuminuria;  locomotion  becomes  impossible,  and  the  patient 
dies  in  convulsions  or  coma,  or  from  paralysis  of  the  respira- 
tory muscles.  After  death,  lead  has  been  found  in  the  tissues, 
especially  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord.  (Comptes- 
liendus  de  la  Soc.  de  Biol.,  iv.  1862;  quoted  by  Dr.  H.  C. 
Wood  in  his  "  Therapeutics,"  1874.) 

Workers  in  white-lead  factories  are  particularly  exposed 
to  the  danger  of  slow  poisoning  by  lead,  more  especially  if 
the  carbonate  be  ground  in  the  dry  state,  in  which  condition 
it  is  diffused  through  the  atmosphere  and  freely  respired 
into  the  lungs.  It  is  also  introduced  through  the  skin,  ad- 
hering to  the  cutaneous  secretions,  owing  to  the  general  ab- 
sence of  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  workmen.  Since  the 
practice  of  grinding  the  white  lead  under  water  has  prevailed, 
cases  of  colica  pictonum  arising  from  this  source  have  very 
sensibly  diminished  in  number.  The  best  practical  means 
of  avoiding  the  danger  is  the  strict  enforcement  of  cleanli- 
ness, especially  before  eating,  and  the  habitual  use,  as  a 
beverage,  of  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  obscure  cases  of  supposed  spinal, 
cerebral,  or  heart  disease  are  really  due  to  the  unsuspected 
and  insidious  introduction  of  lead  into  the  system.  In  such 
cases,  a  close  and  critical  examination  should  be  instituted 
into  the  employment,  mode  of  living,  and  particularly  the 
source  and  mode  of  conveyance  of  the  drinking-water  used 
by  the  patient. 


316  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Chemical  analysis. — 1.  In  the  solid  state. — The  acetate,  when 
heated  on  a  piece  of  porcelain,  first  fuses,  and  is  reduced  to 
a  white,  anhydrous  mass:  if  the  heat  be  continued,  the  mass 
again  fuses,  and  then  becomes  dry  and  charred,  slowly  assum- 
ing a  reddish-brown  color,  and  consisting  of  a  variable  mix- 
ture of  the  oxides  of  lead.  The  carbonate  treated  in  the  same 
manner  does  not  fuse,  but  is  converted  into  a  similar  colored 
mixture  of  the  oxides.  A  fragment  of  the  acetate  placed 
on  charcoal,  and  exposed  to  the  inverse  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe, is  decomposed,  with  the  production  of  bright  malleable 
globules  of  metallic  lead,  and  a  surrounding  yellow  incrusta- 
tion of  the  oxide.  A  fragment  of  acetate  of  lead  dropped 
into  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  assumes  a  bright  yellow 
color,  due  to  the  formation  of  the  iodide  of  lead.  This  is 
soluble  in  an  excess  of  the  reagent.  This  is  a  very  delicate 
test:  even  one  ten-thousandth  of  a  grain,  if  deposited  on  one 
point  of  the  iodide  of  potassium  solution,  gives  the  yellow 
hue  (Wormley). 

If  the  same  experiment  be  made  in  a  solution  of  bichromate 
of  potassa,  it  likewise  assumes  a  yellow  tint,  from  the  forma- 
tion of  chromate  of  lead.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  sul- 
phide of  ammonium,  immediately  imparts  a  black  color  to  a 
fragment  of  the  acetate.  If  the  powder  be  boiled  in  a  tube 
with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  acetic  acid,  recognized  by  its 
odor  and  volatility,  escapes. 

2.  In  the  liquid  state. — (1)  A  few  drops  of  the  solution  of  the 
acetate  allowed  to  evaporate  spontaneously  on  glass  will  crys- 
tallize in  opaque  needles,  which  are  colored  yellow  when 
touched  with  a  drop  of  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium,  or 
chromate  (or  bichromate)  of  potassa;  and  black,  by  sulphide 
of  ammonium.  (2)  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  produces  a  copious 
white  precipitate  (sulphate),  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
in  a  large  excess  of  caustic  potassa.  If  the  lead  solution  be 
very  dilute,  the  precipitated  sulphate  does  not  separate  until 
after  some  time,  (o)  It  is  precipitated  bright  yellow  by 
iodide  of  potassium:  the  precipitated  iodide  of  lead  is  soluble 
in  caustic  potash,  and  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  It 
is  also  soluble  in  boiling  water,  which  deposits  it  in  brilliant 
yellow  six-sided  tables,  on  cooling.  This  is  an  excellent  and 


POISONING   BY   LEAD. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  317 

reliable  test.  (4)  Bichromate  of  potash  also  precipitates  it  as 
yellow  chroraate  of  lead:  this  is>eadily  soluble  in  potash, 
but  only  slowly  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  which  converts 
it  into  white  chloride  of  lead.  (5)  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  the 
most  delicate  of  all  the  tests.  According  to  Dr.  Taylor,  a 
current  of  this  gas  when  properly  applied  will  reveal  a  quarter 
of  a  grain  of  a  salt  of  lead  in  a  gallon  of  water,  or  about 
one  three-hundred-thousandth  part.  The  color  of  the  pre- 
cipitated sulphuret  of  lead  is  black ;  but  as  there  are  other 
metals,  some  of  whose  salts  give  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
or  with  sulphide  of  ammonium  black  precipitates,  such  as 
mercury,  silver,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth,  tin,  and  iron, 
the  suspected  sulphide  must  be  subjected  to  a  further  proof 
before  deciding  that  it  contains  any  lead.  Its  true  character 
may  be  established  by  placing  a  fragment  on  a  piece  of  char- 
coal and  applying  the  inner  flame  of  the  blowpipe  upon  it:  a 
metallic  globule  will  be  obtained,  possessing  all  the  characters 
of  lead.  Or,  the  precipitate  may  be  dissolved  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  with  the  aid  of  heat,  evaporating  to  dryness,  dissolving 
in  water,  and  applying  the  usual  tests  for  the  liquid  form  of 
lead  compounds. 

The  precipitated  sulphide  of  lead  is  insoluble  in  dilute 
mineral  acids,  and  also  in  the  caustic  alkalies.  It  is  soluble 
in  hot  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids,  forming,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, white  chloride  of  lead,  which,  unless  it  be  in  very 
minute  quantities,  separates,  as  the  liquid  cools,  in  the  form 
of  beautiful  crystalline  plates.  With  hot  nitric  acid  it  forms 
a  nitrate  of  lead  with  the  separation  of  free  sulphur.  If  the 
acid  be  concentrated  and  the  heat  be  continued,  the  free 
sulphur  becomes  oxidized  to  sulphuric  acid,  which  displaces 
the  nitric  acid,  and  unites  with  the  oxide  of  lead  to  form  a 
sulphide. 

(6)  The  zinc  or  galvanic  lest. — This  is  a  very  delicate  and 
satisfactory  test.  A  drop  or  two  of  the  suspected  solution, 
acidified  with  acetic  acid,  is  placed  upon  clean  platinum-foil, 
and  a  thin,  polished  strip  of  zinc  is  made  to  touch  the  plati- 
num, through  the  liquid :  crystals  of  metallic  lead  are  in- 
stantly deposited  on  the  zinc.  Or,  a  drop  of  the  fluid  is  put 
into  a  watch-glass,  and  a  fragment  of  zinc  is  dropped  into 

21 


318  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

it:  very  soon  metallic  lead  is  precipitated  upon  the  zinc 
in  a  beautiful  arborescent  form  (lead  tree),  which  should  be 
viewed  under  the  microscope  at  once,  before  any  deposition 
of  the  carbonate  occurs.  A  salt  of  tin,  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances, will  also  give  an  arborescent  precipitate  of  me- 
tallic tin.  Hence  the  true  nature  of  the  metal  thus  obtained 
must  be  verified  by  converting  it  into  a  salt  by  nitric  acid, 
and  then  applying  the  usual  tests. 

Several  other  tests  are  noticed  in  the  books,  such  as  polassa 
and  ammonia,  the  alkaline  carbonates,  oxalate  of  ammonia,  yellow 
and  red  prussiate  of  potassa;  but,  as  these  are  not  character- 
istic, and  are  inferior  in  value  to  those  already  mentioned, 
the}7  need  not  be  here  detailed. 

Detection  in  organic  matters  ;  and  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach. — 
As  acetate  of  lead  is  readily  decomposed  by  various  organic 
substances,  such  as  albumen,  mucus,  and  tannin,  which  pre- 
cipitate the  oxide  of  lead,  the  mixture  presented  for  exami- 
nation may  contain  the  poison  in  either  the  solid  or  the 
liquid  portion,  or  in  both.  As  a  trial  test,  it  may  be  proper 
first  to  filter  oft'  a  portion  of  the  liquid,  and  test  it  with 
sulphuric  acid ;  or  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  by  exposing 
a  piece  of  bibulous  paper  dipped  into  the  liquid  to  a  current 
of  this  gas :  a  brown  stain  upon  the  paper  would  indicate 
the  presence  of  lead,  though  not  of  this  metal  exclusively. 
If  the  paper  is  not  stained  brown,  no  perceptible  quantity  of 
lead  can  be  present. 

Supposing  the  trial  test  indicates  the  presence  of  lead; 
the  mixture  should  be  acidulated  with  pure  nitric  acid  and 
boiled  for  some  time :  this  will  dissolve  to  a  great  extent  the 
organic  compounds  of  lead.  After  cooling,  it  should  be 
filtered,  and  the  solids  on  the  filter  thoroughly  washed  and 
reserved  for  future  examination.  The  filtrate  should  now 
be  concentrated  by  evaporation,  and  a  stream  of  washed 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  passed  through  it,  to  the  point 
of  saturation.  After  standing  for  some  time  in  a  warm 
place,  the  precipitate  is  collected  on  a  filter,  from  which  it 
is  carefully  washed  into  a  test-tube  or  capsule,  by  a  jet  of 
water.  After  the  precipitate  has  subsided,  the  supernatant 
water  may  be  removed  by  decaatatiou,  a  small  quantity  of 


LEAD. — EXAMINATION   OF   THE   TISSUES.  319 

nitric  acid  added,  and  a  gentle  heat  applied.  By  this  means 
the  sulphide  is  converted  into  the  soluble  nitrate,  with  the 
separation  of  free  sulphur.  A  small  quantity  of  distilled 
water  is  now  added,  the  mixture  filtered,  and  the  filtrate 
subjected  to  the  usual  tests  for  lead,  as  already  pointed  out. 
Should  the  quantity  of  the  liquid  be  too  small  for  the  appli- 
cation of  all  the  tests,  it  would  be  best  first  to  employ  sul- 
phuric acid :  if  this  agent  cause  a  white  precipitate,  soluble 
in  potassa  (proved  to  be  free  from  lead),  and  this  solution  be 
turned  black  by  sulphide  of  ammonium,  the  presence  of  lead 
may  be  regarded  as  established.  According  to  Prof.  Worm- 
ley  (loc.  cit.,  p.  370),  the  one-thousandth  of  a  grain  of  oxide 
of  lead  diffused  through  ten  grains  of  water,  and  precipi- 
tated as  sulphide,  when  treated  with  one  drop  of  nitric  acid, 
will  yield  a  clear  solution  which  gives  very  visible  reactions 
with  the  appropriate  tests  for  lead. 

In  case  no  lead  is  found  dissolved  in  the  liquid  portion  ex- 
amined, the  solids  reserved  should  be  boiled  for  some  time 
with  water  containing  about  a  fourth  part  of  nitric  acid; 
the  cooled  solution  filtered ;  the  filtrate  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness,  and  incinerated,  in  order  to  destroy  the  organic  matter. 
The  residue  is  to  be  dissolved  in  a  little  nitric  acid,  and 
properly  diluted  for  testing. 

In  all  the  above  reactions,  care  must  be  taken  to  expel  the 
whole  of  the  nitric  acid  (or  else  carefully  to  neutralize  it  by 
pure  potassa),  as  an  excess  of  the  acid  will  show  a  yellow 
color  with  the  Iodide  of  potassium  test,  although  no  lead  be 
present. 

The  contents  of  the  stomach  should  be  examined  as  above, 
by  boiling  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  etc.  If  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  or  an  alkaline  sulphate,  had  been  administered  as  an 
antidote,  the  poison  would  probably  be  found  in  the  form 
of  an  insoluble  white  sulphate  of  lead,  adhering  to  the 
coats  of  the  organ.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  suspected 
substance  should  be  carefully  scraped  off,  and  boiled  in  a 
strong  solution  of  pure  potassa  (which  dissolves  it),  and  the 
lead  precipitated  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

From  the  tissues. — The  solid  organ, — the  liver,  for  example, 
— in  sufficient  quantity,  is  cut  into  fine  pieces  and  boiled  in  a 


320  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

mixture  of  one  part  of  pure  nitric  acid  to  four  parts  of  dis- 
tilled water  until  the  mixture  becomes  homogeneous.  It 
has  been  recommended  by  some  authorities  to  employ  chlo- 
rate of  potassa  along  with  the  nitric  acid,  with  a  cautious 
application  of  heat,  until  the  disappearance  of  all  vapors. 
When  the  mixture  has  cooled,  it  is  to  be  filtered,  and  the 
filtrate  evaporated  to  dryness ;  the  residue  moistened  with 
nitric  acid,  and  again  evaporated  to  dryness ;  and  the  heat 
cautiously  increased  until  all  vapors  cease  to  be  given  off, 
and  the  residue  is  reduced  to  a  carbonaceous  mass.  This 
mass  is  powdered  and  boiled  with  a  small  quantity  of  strong 
nitric  acid  diluted  with  water,  the  solution  filtered,  the  fil- 
trate evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  a 
little  water  acidulated  with  nitric  acid.  This  solution,  filtered 
if  necessary,  is  saturated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  the 
precipitated  sulphide,  after  being  washed,  is  boiled  in  dilute 
nitric  acid;  and  the  resulting  solution  subjected  to  the  usual 
tests. 

M.  Tardieu  recommends,  among  other  methods  of  destroy- 
ing the  organic  matters,  carbonization  by  means  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  and  heat.  In  this  case,  however,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  greater  portion,  if  not  all,  of 
the  lead  will  be  found  in  the  state  of  sulphate,  mixed  up 
with  the  carbonaceous  mass.  This  mass  is  to  be  finely  pow- 
dered, and  boiled  for  one  hour  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda  or  potassa.  The  black-colored  mixture  is  then  filtered; 
the  solids  on  the  filter  are  first  thoroughly  washed  with  pure 
water  until  the  washings  cease  to  be  alkaline,  and  then  fre- 
quently with  very  dilute  nitric  acid,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
solving the  carbonate  of  lead  formed.  The  acid  liquids 
being  mixed  together  are  then  saturated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen ;  and  after  standing  for  several  hours,  the  pre- 
cipitated sulphide  is  treated  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed (loc.  tit,  p.  737). 

Still  another  method  of  treating  the  solid  organs  is,  first 
to  dry  them  thoroughly,  and  then  to  incinerate  them  in  a 
porcelain  crucible,  and  dissolve  out  the  lead  by  means  of 
strong  nitric  acid;  evaporate  the  residue  to  dryness;  dilute 
with  water,  and  precipitate  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  In 


POISONING   BY  LEAD. — QUANTITATIVE   ANALYSIS.  321 

case  of  the  detection  of  minute  portions  in  the  organs  of  a 
body  suspected  of  being  poisoned,  a  careful  inquiry  should 
always  be  instituted  in  reference  to  the  particular  occupa- 
tion, mode  of  living,  etc.,  of  the  individual;  remembering 
how  insidiously  and  unsuspiciously  lead  may  be  introduced 
into  the  system,  and  that,  too,  many  months  before  death. 

The  urine. — As  it  is  chiefly  through  this  secretion  that  lead 
is  eliminated  from  the  system,  the  examination  of  the  urine 
ought  never  to  be  neglected,  especially  in  obscure  cases  of 
suspected  lead-poisoning.  For  the  purpose  of  analysis,  fifteen 
or  twenty  ounces  of  urine,  acidulated  with  nitric  acid,  should 
be  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue  carbonized  with  nitric 
acid,  and  the  carbonaceous  mass  treated  in  the  manner 
directed  for  the  detection  of  lead  in  the  tissues  (p.  319). 

Quantitative  determination. — Lead  is  usually  determined  as  a 
sulphide ;  which  is  precipitated  from  a  slightly  acid  solution 
by  a  slow  stream  of  washed  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  a 
warm  place,  until  the  whole  of  the  precipitate  has  subsided. 
This  is  then  collected  on  a  filter  of  known  weight;  thoroughly 
washed,  dried  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight,  and  weighed. 

Every  100  parts  of  the  dry  sulphuret  represent  93.31  parts 
of  oxide  of  lead,  or  158.37  parts  of  crystals  of  the  acetate. 

Every  100  parts  by  weight  of  dry  sulphate  of  lead  are 
equivalent  to  125  parts  of  crystallized  acetate. 


322  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

POISONING   BY   ZINC,   BISMUTH,   TIN,   IRON,  AND    CHROMIUM. 
SECTION  I. 

POISONING    BY   ZINC. 

CASES  of  poisoning  by  the  preparations  of  Zinc  are  rare, 
except  from  accident.  Although  metallic  zinc  is  harmless  so 
long  as  it  retains  its  metallic  condition,  it  would  never- 
theless be  likely  to  occasion  serious  results  if  swallowed,  in 
consequence  of  its  easy  conversion  into  soluble  salts  from 
contact  with  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  The  sulphate  and 
the  chloride  are  the  preparations  of  zinc  that  are  the  most 
common  causes  of  poisoning. 

The  zinc  of  commerce  (spelter)  very  often  contains  arsenic, 
cadmium,  antimony,  iron,  lead,  and  other  impurities. 

SULPHATE  OF  ZINC  ( White  Vitriol). — This  salt  usually  occurs 
in  white,  prismatic  crystals.  It  has  a  metallic,  astringent 
taste;  is  very  soluble  in  water;  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether; 
and  effloresces  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Effects  on  the  system. — Sulphate  of  zinc  is  a  very  prompt  and 
powerful  emetic,  and  is  much  used  for  this  purpose  in  cases 
of  narcotic  poisoning.  It  has  been  given  medicinally  in 
quite  large  doses  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  without 
producing  any  injurious  effects.  The  late  Dr.  Babington 
administered  it,  in  cases  of  epilepsy,  to  the  extent  of  two 
scruples  three  times  a  day  for  a  period  of  three  weeks,  with- 
out even  occasioning  any  symptoms  of  irritation.  The  medi- 
cine was  first  given  in  small  doses,  gradually  increased.  A 
tolerance  of  the  medicine  seemed  to  have  been  established, 
similar  to  that  attending  the  exhibition  of  antimony  as  ad- 
ministered on  the  contra-stimulant  plan. 

When  swallowed  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce, 
the  effects  are  those  of  a  powerful  irritant  poison.  A  strong 
metallic  taste  is  perceived,  attended  with  a  sense  of  burning 


POISONING   BY   CHLORIDE   OF   ZINC.  323 

and  constriction  of  the  throat  and  gullet;  nausea;  violent 
vomiting  and  retching;  intense  pain  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels;  frequent  purging;  small  and  frequent  pulse;  great 
anxiety  ;  cold  perspiration ;  extreme  prostration,  and  death. 
The  intellect  is  generally  unaffected  to  the  last. 

Dr.  Taylor  mentions  the  case  of  a  man  who  recovered  in 
a  few  days  after  taking  an  ounce  of  sulphate  of  zinc  by  mis- 
take for  Epsom  salts.  There  were  early  vomiting  and  purg- 
ing of  a  violent  character,  with  great  prostration  of  strength. 
(Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed.,  1873,  p.  183.)  A  fatal  case  is  quoted 
by  Prof.  Wormley  from  the  "Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,"  July, 
1849, — that  of  a  woman  who  swallowed,  by  mistake  for  Epsom 
salt,  a  solution  containing  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  sulphate  of 
zinc.  Death  ensued  in  thirteen  hours  and  a  half,  after  most 
violent  vomiting  and  purging,  and  pain  in  the  abdomen 
and  the  limbs,  together  with  extreme  prostration  and  anxiety, 
and  small  and  frequent  pulse.  A  sister  of  this  woman,  aged 
thirty-five  years,  took  a  similar  dose  of  the  poison,  but 
recovered,  after  suffering  from  its  effects  for  several  days. 

Morbid  appearances. — These  vary  somewhat  in  different 
cases.  Sometimes  there  is  simply  inflammation  of  the  stom- 
ach, in  patches.  In  other  cases  there  are  evidences  of  the 
most  violent  irritation  and  inflammation,  such  as  a  softened, 
gelatinous  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which  is  easily 
scraped  off;  ecchymosed  patches,  and  sometimes  ulceration, 
together  with  injection  of  the  small  intestines;  a  yellowish, 
pultaceous  matter  covering  the  inner  surface  of  the  stomach 
and  bowels;  congestion  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes; 
bloody  effusion  into  the  pleura ;  congestion  of  the  lungs,  and 
a  flaccid  condition  of  the  heart.  The  above  lesions  do  not 
all  occur  in  the  same  cases;  but  they  represent  the  general 
post-mortem  appearances  observed. 

CHLORIDE  or  ZINC,  in  the  liquid  form,  is  sold  in  the  shops 
under  the  name  of  "  Sir  Wm.  Burnett's  Disinfecting  Fluid." 
It  is  much  used  as  a  deodorizer.  It  contains  about  two  hun- 
dred grains  of  the  anhydrous  salt  in  each  fluidounce.  It  is 
a  powerfully  corrosive  fluid,  and  has  been  frequently  the 
cause  of  death,  being  taken  either  by  mistake,  or  suicidally. 


324  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  this  substance  are,  in  general, 
similar  to  those  produced  by  the  sulphate,  only  more  intense 
in  their  character,  and  resembling  somewhat  those  of  the  cor- 
rosive acids.  These  violent  symptoms  come  on  immediately 
on  swallowing  the  liquid;  the  matters  vomited  and  purged 
are  frequently  tinged  with  blood  and  mixed  with  shreds  of 
mucous  membrane.  There  has  been  observed  frothing  at 
the  mouth,  with  a  white  appearance  of  the  inside  of  this 
cavity. 

The  period  at  which  the  chloride  of  zinc  proves  fatal  varies, 
as  in  poisoning  from  other  substances.  Dr.  Taylor  records 
the  most  rapidly-fatal  case  known, — that  of  a  woman  aged 
twenty-eight  years,  who  swallowed  an  ounce  of  this  fluid  and 
survived  only/owr  hours.  On  the  other  hand,  the  case  may 
become  chronic,  and  the  patient  perish  at  last,  after  months 
or  years  of  suffering,  from  stricture  of  the  oesophagus,  or  from 
the  resulting  exhaustion  and  emaciation. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  in  poisoning  by  the  chloride  of 
zinc  are  those  of  a  corrosive  as  Avell  as  of  an  irritant.  In 
some  cases  the  coats  of  the  stomach  have  been  found  hard 
and  leathery,  thickened  and  corrugated  ;  in  others,  the  stom- 
ach was  reddened  externally,  the  mucous  membrane  of  a 
deep-purple  color,  and  partially  corroded  and  destroyed. 
The  pyloric  opening  was  constricted,  and  its  mucous  mem- 
brane appeared  as  if  it  had  been  cauterized.  Constriction 
of  the  oesophagus  has  been  noticed  ;  together  with  a  pseudo- 
membranous  deposit  on  the  lining  membrane.  The  lungs 
have  been  found  congested,  as  also  the  vessels  at  the  base  of 
the  brain.  The  heart  is  usually  unaffected.  In  very  protracted 
cases,  the  stomach  has  been  found  so  much  contracted  as  to 
contain  only  four  ounces  of  fluid;  with  one  or  more  perfora- 
tions. 

Treatment. — Free  emesis  should  be  encouraged  by  the  co- 
pious use  of  warm,  mild,  mucilaginous  drinks :  the  stomach- 
pump  may  sometimes  be  advantageously  used.  Albumen 
should  be  freely  given.  The  excessive  irritation  is  best 
combated  by  opium. 

Chemical  analysis. — In  the  solid  state,  the  sulphate  may  be 
distinguished  from  Epsom  salt  and  oxalic  acid  (which  it 


POISONING   BY   ZINC. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  325 

closely  resembles  in  appearance)  by  the  action  of  chromate  of 
potassa:  a  solution  of  the  latter  applied  to  a  grain  or  two  of 
the  sulphate,  in  a  watch-glass,  changes  it  to  a  yellow  color, 
and  it  soon  becomes  converted  into  a  mass  of  small,  yellow 
granules. 

The  blowpipe  affords  an  easy  method  of  identifying  a  salt 
of  zinc.  A  small  fragment,  previously  mixed  with  a  little 
carbonate  of  soda,  is  placed  on  a  piece  of  charcoal,  and  the 
inner  flame  made  to  play  upon  it.  It  quickly  fuses,  and 
is  soon  dissipated  into  vapor  of  the  oxide,  which  forms  a 
yellowish  incrustation  upon  the  charcoal,  which  on  cooling 
becomes  white.  Under  the  blowpipe  cobalt  imparts  a  green 
color  to  the  fused  bead  of  zinc. 

In  solution:  (1)  The  fixed  alkalies  and  ammonia  throw 
down  a  white,  hydrated  oxide  of  zinc,  soluble  in  excess  of  the 
precipitant.  (2)  The  alkaline  carbonates  precipitate  the  white 
hydrated  carbonate,  insoluble  in  excess  of  the  precipitate, 
but  soluble  in  excess  of  carbonate  of  ammonia.  (3)  Ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium  gives  a  white  precipitate,  insoluble  in 
acids  and  alkalies.  (4)  Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  sulphide 
of  ammonium,  occasions  a  white,  amorphous  precipitate  (sul- 
phide of  zinc)  in  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions,  insoluble  in 
the  alkalies  and  organic  acids,  but  readily  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  precipitate  is  white  only  if  the  zinc  be 
perfectly  free  from  iron  and  other  impurities.  The  white 
precipitate  should  always  be  further  verified,  inasmuch  as 
a  whitish  deposit,  consisting  chiefly  of  free  sulphur,  may  be 
thrown  down  from  other  solutions  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
and  sulphide  of  ammonium.  The  suspected  sulphide  of  zinc 
should  be  collected  on  a  filter,  boiled  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  solution  filtered  and  diluted,  and  subjected  to  the  usual 
liquid  tests. 

Other  tests  may  be  employed,  such  as  carbonate  of  potassa, 
phospJiate  of  soda,  and  oxalic  acid;  but  they  are  not  character- 
istic, and  are  of  inferior  value  to  those  before  mentioned. 

The  acids  in  the  compounds  may  be  recognized  by  their 
appropriate  tests :  sulphuric  acid  by  chloride  or  nitrate  of 
barium;  hydrochloric  acid,  by  nitrate  of  silver. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — The  contents  of  the  stomach, 


326  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

or  other  organic  mixture  supposed  to  contain  the  poison, 
should  be  mixed  with  a  little  acetic  acid,  and  heated  gently 
for  some  time,  in  order  to  dissolve  out  the  zinc  that  may 
have  combined  with  any  albumen,  fibrin,  or  casein.  After 
cooling,  the  solution  is  to  be  filtered,  concentrated,  if  neces- 
sary, and  then  treated  with  sulphide  of  ammonium,  or  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  as  long  as  any  precipitate  is  thrown 
down.  The  latter  is  collected  on  a  filter,  washed,  and  digested 
in  nitric  acid :  this  converts  it  into  a  nitrate.  It  is  now  to 
be  evaporated  to  dryness,  in  order  to  expel  the  excess  of  acid; 
the  residue  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  and  the  filtered  liquid 
examined  by  the  ordinary  zinc  tests.  As  the  preparations  of 
zinc  generally  contain  iron,  the  presence  of  the  latter  metal 
may  more  or  less  modify  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  former. 
The  iron  may  be  separated  by  adding  an  excess  of  ammonia, 
which  precipitates  the  oxide  of  iron,  whilst  it  retains  the 
zinc-oxide  in  solution.  After  filtration,  the  zinc  may  be 
precipitated  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

Detection  in  the  tissues. — Absorbed  zinc  may  be  procured 
from  the  tissues  or  organs  by  reducing  them  to  small  frag- 
ments, and  boiling  in  nitric  acid  somewhat  diluted,  until  all 
the  organic  matter  is  thoroughly  dissolved.  When  cold,  the 
solution  is  strained,  and  the  liquid  evaporated  to  dryness. 
Pure  nitric  acid  is  sprinkled  over  the  residue,  which  is  heated 
until  the  organic  matter  is  completely  destroyed.  The  dry 
mass  thus  obtained  is  treated  with  distilled  water  containing 
a  little  hydrochloric  acid ;  and  the  filtered  liquid  evaporated 
to  dryness.  The  residue  is  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  and 
precipitated  with  sulphide  of  ammonium:  the  precipitate 
should  be  identified  in  the  manner  already  pointed  out.  Or, 
the  viscera,  after  being  thoroughly  dried,  may  be  incinerated 
in  a  porcelain  crucible,  and  the  resulting  ash  treated  with 
nitric  acid ;  the  solution  filtered  and  evaporated  to  dryness ; 
the  residue  dissolved  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid ;  again  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  then  dissolved  in 
pure  water,  and  tested  by  sulphide  of  ammonium,  as  just 
described. 

Inasmuch  as  chloride  of  zinc  is  frequently  used  for  embalm- 
ing and  preserving  dead  bodies,  the  discovery  of  zinc  in  the 


POISONING   BY   BISMUTH.  327 

tissues  in  a  suspected  case  is  no  evidence  of  the  death  having 
resulted  from  this  poison,  unless  supported  by  other  proofs. 

Absorbed  zinc  has  been  detected  in  the  tissues  and  in  the 
blood  after  death,  after  comparatively  long  periods. 

Quantitative  determination. — Zinc  is  generally  determined  as 
an  oxide.  The  solution  is  heated  to  the  boiling  temperature, 
and  precipitated  with  a  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda 
until  all  the  precipitated  carbonate  subsides.  This  should 
then  be  collected  in  a  filter,  washed  with  hot  water,  dried, 
and  ignited.  The  protoxide  of  zinc  thus  obtained  is  now 
weighed.  Every  100  grains  represent  354.13  grains  of  pure 
crystallized  sulphate,  or  167.77  grains  of  anhydrous  chloride 
of  zinc. 

SECTION   II. 

POISONING    BY   BISMUTH. 

Subnitmte  of  bismuth. — Pearl  white. — Magistery  of  bismuth. — 
This  substance  is  considerably  employed  both  as  a  cosmetic 
and  as  a  medicine.  For  the  latter  purpose  it  is  frequently 
administered  in  doses  of  five  to  thirty  grains,  in  certain 
derangements  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Several  fatal 
cases  have  been  reported  as  resulting  from  large  doses  of  this 
substance:  Dr.  Taylor  records  one  in  which  two  drachms  pro- 
duced death  in  an  adult  in  nine  days.  The  symptoms  were 
those  of  the  powerful  irritant  mineral  poisons, — identical, 
indeed,  with  the  symptoms  commonly  seen  in  arsenical  poison- 
ing. This  authority  states  (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp., 
1873)  that  the  medicinal  subuitrate  generally  contains  arsenic 
as  an  impurity.  He  detected  it,  in  a  comparatively  large  pro- 
portion, in  samples  obtained  from  three  respectable  London 
druggists.  Three  specimens  out  of  five  contained  it.  The 
arsenic  may  readily  be  discovered  by  dissolving  the  sub- 
nitrate  in  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  slightly  diluted,  and  using 
a  Marsh's  apparatus.  The  same  adulteration  has  been  occa- 
sionally found  to  exist  in  the  subnitrate  of  bismuth  sold  in 
our  own  shops;  and  it  should  be  looked  to  by  physicians,  as 
being  the  probable  cause  of  the  irritation  which  occasionally 
follows  the  use  of  this  medicine. 


328      '  MANUAL   OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

Dr.  Fullerton,  of  Hillsbordugh,  Ohio,  relates  an  instance 
of  poisoning  by  impure  subnitrate  of  bismuth.  A  physician 
having  occasion  to  put  himself  under  this  remedy  noticed 
in  a  few  days  a  puffiuess  of  his  eyelids  and  some  gastro- 
intestinal irritation,  which  symptoms  disappeared  on  dis- 
continuing the  medicine,  but  were  again  manifested  on  its 
renewal.  On  analysis,  a  large  proportion  of  arsenic  was 
detected  in  the  subnitrate.  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Jan.,  1874.) 
The  editor  of  the  above  journal  also  quotes  a  case  of  an  infant, 
recorded  by  Dr.  Herbert  in  "Le  Mouvement  Medical,"  Nov. 
22,  1873,  where  the  irritating  symptoms  resulting  from  the 
employment  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  for  a  diarrhoea  were 
traced  to  the  adulteration  of  the  medicine  by  arsenic. 

This  impurity  may  essentially  modify  a  medico-legal  opin- 
ion as  to  the  presence  of  traces  of  arsenic  in  a  body,  where 
bismuth  had  been  previously  administered  medicinally.  An 
interesting  case  of  this  nature  (State  of  Virginia  v.  Mrs.  E.  E. 
Lloyd,  1872)  was  recently  tried,  in  which  the  defense  strongly 
contended  that  the  existence  of  a  fractional  portion  of  arsenic, 
alleged  to  have  been  found  in  the  liver  of  the  deceased,  was 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  subnitrate  of  bismuth  which  had  been 
taken  before  death :  this  bismuth  was  afterwards  found  to  be 
contaminated  with  arsenic.  The  prisoner  was  acquitted. 

By  the  process  recommended  by  the  present  U.  S.  Phar- 
macopoeia, the  bismuth  is  entirely  freed  from  arsenic. 

Subnitrate  of  bismuth  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  white 
powder,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  nitric  acid ;  the 
solution,  when  thrown  into  water,  yielding  a  copious  white 
precipitate.  It  is  blackened  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
by  sulphide  of  ammonium. 

A  piece  of  paper  wetted  with  a  solution  of  sulpho-cyanide 
of  potassium,  and  dried,  is  a  very  sensitive  and  characteristic 
test  for  a  soluble  salt  of  bismuth, — a  beautiful  yellow  spot 
appearing  at  the  point  of  contact.  According  to  MM.  Ber- 
geret  and  Mayeo^on,  after  the  administration  of  the  sub- 
nitrate  the  metal  may  thus  be  always  detected,  after  a  few 
hours,  in  the  urine.  (Journal  de  1'Anatomie,  1873,  p.  242; 
quoted  in  Dr.  H.  C.  Wood's  "Therapeutics.") 


POISONING    BY   IRON.  329 

SECTION   III. 

POISONING   BY   TIN,    SALTS   OF   IKON,    AND   CHROMIUM. 

SALTS  OF  TIN.  —  The  only  preparations  of  tin  requiring 
notice  are  the  chlorides.  A  mixture  of  the  protochloride  and 
perchloride,  in  solution,  constitutes  what  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  Dyers'  Spirit. 

The  effects  of  these  salts  upon  the  system  are  those  usually 
attendant  upon  the  mineral  irritants.  Cases  of  poisoning  from 
them  are  very  rare. 

The  protochloride  of  tin  is  distinguished  by  the  following 
properties:  (1)  It  is  precipitated  of  a  dark  chocolate  color  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  also  by  sulphide  of  ammonium, — the 
precipitate  being  soluble  in  an  excess  of  the  reagent.  (2) 
Bichloride  of  mercury  gives  a  gray  precipitate  of  metallic 
mercury.  (3)  Chloride  of  gold  gives  a  fine  purple  precipitate, 
— the  purple  of  Cassius.  (4)  A  fragment  of  zinc  immediately 
precipitates  metallic  tin  in  a  beautiful  arborescent  form,  very 
much  as  in  the  case  of  lead. 

The  perchloride  is  precipitated  yellow  by  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen and  sulphide  of  ammonium,  the  precipitate  being  soluble 
in  an  excess  of  the  reagent.  This  yellow  precipitate  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  yellow  sulphide  of  arsenic  by  being 
insoluble  in  ammonia;  and  from  sulphide  of  cadmium,  by 
being  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Corrosive  sublimate 
and  chloride  of  gold  give  no  precipitate  with  it. 

The  preparations  of  silver,  gold,  and  platinum  are  highly 
irritant  and  corrosive;  but  they  so  rarely  occasion  poisoning 
in  the  human  subject,  that  further  notice  of  them  is  un- 
necessary. 

PREPARATIONS  OF  IRON. — The  only  salts  of  iron  necessary 
to  mention  as  possessing  poisonous  properties  are  the  sul- 
phate (green  vitriof)  and  the  chloride. 

The  sulphate,  in  large  doses,  is  a  powerful  irritant,  and  has 
proved  fatal  in  several  cases  recorded  by  Sir  R.  Christison, 
Orn'la,  and  others. 

The  chloride,  in  the  form  of  tincture  (muriated  tincture  of 
iron),  is  much  used  in  medicine ;  but  in  large  doses  it  is  a 


330  MANUAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

powerful  irritant  and  corrosive,  giving  rise  to  symptoms  very 
like  those  produced  by  the  mineral  acids,  such  as  dryness  and 
swelling  of  the  throat,  burning  pain  in  the  stomach,  vomit- 
ing of  blood,  and  black  evacuations  from  the  bowels.  Dr. 
Christison  relates  a  case  of  a  man  who  swallowed,  by  mis- 
take, an  ounce  and  a  half  of  this  liquid:  death  occurred  in 
about  five  weeks.  The  stomach  was  found  inflamed,  and 
thickened  towards  the  pyloric  orifice. 

It  may  be  well  to  remember  that  this  substance  is  some- 
times employed  by  pregnant  women  as  an  abortive. 

PREPARATIONS  OF  CHROMIUM. — Two  salts  of  chrome — the 
neutral  chromate  and  the  bichromate  of  potassa — are  manu- 
factured extensively,  and  are  much  used  as  dyes. 

The  chromate  of  potash  is  of  a  yellow  color.  The  bichromate 
of  potash  occurs  in  beautiful  orange-red  crystals,  in  the  form 
of  rhombic  plates  or  prisms,  very  soluble  in  water.  This  salt 
is  a  powerful  irritant,  and  has  proved  fatal  in  several  in- 
stances. In  one  case,  communicated  to  Dr.  Taylor  by  Mr. 
Wood,  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  two  drachms  killed  a 
woman  in  four  hours,  with  symptoms  of  violent  irritation : 
the  post-mortem  appearances  were  those  of  a  corrosive  poison. 
Mr.  Wilson,  of  Leeds,  mentions  a  fatal  case  in  which  there 
was  an  entire  absence  of  vomiting  and  purging  (Med.  Gaz., 
vol.  xxxiii.  p.  734).  In  this  case  the  salt  appeared  to  have 
acted  not  so  much  by  its  irritant  properties,  as  by  the  in- 
direct effect  upon  the  nervous  centres.  Certain  kinds  of  ink- 
powder,  composed  of  this  salt,  have  been  known  to  produce 
injurious,  and  even  fatal,  effects. 

Workmen  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  the  bichromate 
are  often  exposed  to  its  noxious  influences.  Several  fatal 
cases  have  occurred  in  Baltimore,  where  it  is  largely  manu- 
factured. Dr.  Baer,  of  that  city,  reported  a  case  of  a  laborer 
who,  attempting  to  draw  off  from  a  receiver  a  solution  of  this 
salt,  accidentally  imbibed,  through  the  siphon,  a  small  quan- 
tity into  his  mouth.  In  a  few  minutes  he  experienced  great 
heat  in  the  throat  and  stomach,  which  was  followed  by  vio- 
lent vomiting  of  blood  and  mucus.  The  vomiting  continued 
incessantly  till  his  death,  which  took  place  in  Jice  hours.  On 


POISONING    BY   VEGETABLE    IRRITANTS.  331 

dissection,  the  raucous  lining  of  the  stomach,  duodenum,  and 
a  portion  of  the  jejunum  was  found  destroyed  in  patches. 
(Beck's  Med.  Jurisp.,  vol.  ii.  p.  666.) 

Chemical  analysis. — Bichromate  of  potassa  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  salts  by  the  deep  orange-red  color  of  its  crys- 
tals. Its  solution  has  a  similar  color,  and  possesses  an  acid 
reaction.  It  may  be  identified  by  the  following  tests:  (1) 
Acetate  of  kad  gives  with  it  a  bright-yellow  precipitate  (chro- 
mate  of  lead)  ;•  (2)  nitrate  of  silver  yields  a  deep-red  precipitate; 
(3)  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gives  a  dingy-green  precipitate.  Po- 
tassa may  be  discovered  in  it  by  the  bichloride  of  platinum. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

VEGETABLE    AND    ANIMAL   IRRITANTS. 
SECTION  I. 

POISONING   BY  VEGETABLE   IRRITANTS. — CROTON   OIL. — KLATERITJM. — ALOES. 
— COLOCYNTH. — CASTOR-OIL    BEANS. — COLCHICUM. — SAVIN. 

THE  vegetable  kingdom  furnishes  numerous  substances 
possessing  a  highly  acrid,  poisonous  nature.  Those  only  will 
be  briefly  noticed  here  that  are  employed  in  medicine,  and 
overdoses  of  which  have  been  known  to  occasion  violent 
symptoms,  and  even  death. 

These  irritants  appear  to  owe  their  activity  to  the  presence 
of  either  an  acrid  oil  or  a  resin  ;  in  which  respect  they  differ 
notably  from  the  neurotics  proper,  in  which  the  active  principle 
is  either  an  alkaloid  or  a  neutral  body.  An  exception  to 
this,  however,  is  afforded  in  the  case  of  colchicum  and  elate- 
rium,  the  former  of  which  contains  an  alkaloidal  principle — 
colehicina,  and  the  latter  a  neutral  substance — elaterin. 

The  drastic  cathartics,  as  a  class,  are  distinguished  for  their 
powerful  irritant  impression  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  In  medical  practice,  it  is  customary  to  give 
them  in  combination  with  one  another — small  doses  of  each, 


332  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

— by  which  means  their  individual  acrimony  is  diminished; 
but  if  they  are  taken  in  excessive  doses,  and  especially  in  a 
debilitated  state  of  the  system,  they  may  produce  alarming 
prostration,  terminating  in  death. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  this  class  of  poisons  are  those 
of  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal — vomiting,  purging, 
pain  in  the  abdomen,  cramps,  tenesmus,  and  strangury.  The 
patient  falls  into  a  state  of  collapse,  attended  occasionally 
with  drowsiness  and  slight  nervous  symptoms. 

The  post-mortem  signs  are  those  indicative  of  inflammation 
of  the  gastro-euteric  mucous  membrane,  in  its  different 
stages. 

The  most  powerful  drastics  are  croton  oil,elaterium,  scam- 
mony,  gamboge,  colchicum,  and  hellebore. 

CROTON  OIL. — This  is  a  fixed  oil,  extracted  by  pressure 
from  the  seeds  of  the  Croton  tigliam.  It  is  a  prompt  and  pow- 
erful purgative  in  the  dose  of  one  or  two  drops.  Overdoses 
occasion  violent  irritant  symptoms,  with  collapse,  resembling 
some  of  the  worst  cases  of  cholera.  M.  Chevallier  reports  two 
cases  of  poisoning  by  this  oil.  In  one,  a  druggist  swallowed, 
by  mistake  for  cod-liver  oil,  half  an  ounce  of  crotou  oil.  He 
felt  a  burning  sensation  in  his  throat  and  stomach,  soon 
followed  by  vomiting  and  copious  purging,  with  symptoms 
of  collapse.  He  did  not  recover  until  after  a  fortnight.  In 
the  other  case,  quoted  from  Devergie,  a  man  aged  twenty- 
five  swallowed  by  mistake  two  drachms  and  a  half  of  the  oil. 
The  most  violent  purging,  with  collapse,  took  place,  and  the 
patient  died  in  four  hours.  (Ann.  d'Hyg.,  1871,  i.  p.  409.) 
The  following  abstract  of  a  case  described  by  Dr.  Greenhow 
(Med.  Times  and  Gaz.,  Aug.,  1866,  p.  143)  affords  a  good 
example  of  this  form  of  poisoning.  An  old  lady  took  by 
mistake  an  embrocation  containing  thirty  minims  of  the  oil. 
When  seen  two  hours  afterwards,  she  had  all  the  appearance 
of  a  person  in  the  cold  stage  of  cholera.  There  hud  been 
profuse  purging  of  matters  exactly  resembling  the  rice-water 
stools  of  cholera  patients,  together  with  severe  cramps.  The 
surface  was  cold,  the  features  shrunken,  and  the  skin  even 
more  blue  than  is  usual  in  cases  of  true  cholera ;  the  pulse 


POISONING    BY   VEGETABLE    IRRITANTS.  333 

thready  and  almost  imperceptible ;  and  the  respiration  gasp- 
ing. She  was  very  restless,  but  her  intellect  remained  un- 
impaired :  she  died  ten  hours  after  taking  the  poison. 

We  have  seen  several  cases  of  the  accidental  swallowing 

O 

of  a  croton  oil  embrocation,  but  where  the  quantity  of  the 
poison  was  not  so  great  as  in  the  instance  last  mentioned : 
after  very  severe  symptoms  of  gastro-enteric  irritation,  re- 
covery took  place  under  the  use  of  demulcents  and  opiates. 

The  poisonous  properties  of  croton  oil  depend  upon  a 
peculiar  fatty  acid  (crotonic  acid),  which  it  contains  in  vari- 
able quantity.  When  deprived  of  this  acid,  the  oil  is  per- 
fectly harmless. 

Analysis. — Croton  oil  is  of  a  light-yellow  color,  has  a  very 
unpleasant  odor,  and  a  hot,  acrid,  burning  taste.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  ether,  by  means  of  which  it  may  be  separated  from 
other  substances.  When  warmed  with  nitric  acid,  it  turns 
of  a  dark-brown  color. 

ELATERIUM. — This  is  the  product  of  the  Momordica  elaterium., 
or  squirting  cucumber.  The  juice  of  this  fruit  deposits,  on 
standing,  a  sediment  or  fecula,  which  constitutes  the  sub- 
stance in  question.  The  English  elaterium  is  a  very  active 
drastic  purgative  in  the  dose  of  one-eighth  to  one-fourth  of  a 
grain.  It  owes  its  activity  to  a  neutral  crystalline  principle, 
elaterin,  which  constitutes  about  one-fourth  of  the  extract. 
With  cold  sulphuric  acid  it  gives  a  red-brown  solution,  made 
darker  by  heating.  Nitric  acid  does  not  change  its  color. 

ALOES.  —  COLOCYNTH. — JALAP. —  Sc  AMMONY. —  GAMBOGE. — 
These  substances  are  much  employed  in  medicine,  in  small 
doses,  as  active  cathartics;  but  in  large  quantities  they  act 
as  powerful  irritants,  producing  violent  vomiting  and  purg- 
ing, with  other  symptoms  of  active  irritation.  Some  of 
them  constitute  the  active  ingredients  in  several  popular 
purgative  pills. 

A  mixture  of  aloes  and  canella  has  long  been  known 
under  the  name  of  hiera  j)icra,  or  holy  bitter :  it  is  used  as  a 
popular  abortive,  and  cases  are  reported  of  serious  results  fol- 
lowing its  use  in  the  pregnant  female.  The  active  principle 
of  aloes,  termed  aloin,  is  soluble  in  water:  it  is  distinguished 

22 


334  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

by  imparting  to  cold  sulphuric  acid  a  yellow  color,  which  is 
heightened  by  warming  it,  and  at  a  high  heat  changes  to 
green.  Nitric  acid  turns  it  orange. 

Colocynth  and  jalap  owe  their  power  to  neutral  princi- 
ples— colocynthin  and  jalapin.  Scammony  and  gamboge  are 
inspissated  juices,  and  are  classed  among  the  gum-resins; 
the  resin  is  the  active  principle. 

CASTOR-OIL  SEEDS. — These  are  derived  from  the  JRicinus 
commimis  (Palma  Christi),  or  castor-oil  plant.  By  pressure, 
they  yield  the  castor  oil  of  the  shops.  The  beans  or  seeds 
contain  a  powerful  irritant  principle,  which  appears  to  be 
dispelled  at  a  certain  temperature,  and  which,  consequently, 
does  not  exist  in  the  commercial  oil  when  properly  prepared. 
Two  or  three  of  these  seeds,  when  chewed  and  swallowed  by 
an  adult,  will  generally  act  as  an  active  drastic  cathartic. 
They  have  occasioned  death  in  more  than  one  instance, — 
their  effects  being  altogether  disproportionate  to  the  amount 
of  oil  contained.  Three  seeds  have  destroyed  the  life  of  an 
adult  male  in  forty-six  hours ;  and  twenty  seeds  proved  fatal 
to  a  young  lady  in  live  days,  after  violent  purging  and  vomit- 
ing, cold  skin,  shrunken  features,  small  and  wiry  pulse,  thirst, 
pain  in  the  abdomen,  and  serous  discharges — a  combination 
of  symptoms  strongly  resembling  those  of  malignant  cholera. 
A  post-mortem  inspection  revealed  violent  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  small  intestines ;  together  with  abrasion  of 
the  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  (Taylor,  Prin. 
and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p.  329.) 

COLCHICUM  (Meadow  Saffron}. — The  Colchicum  autumnale,  or 
meadow  saifron,  contains  a  powerful  alkaloidal  principle, 
colchicina,  which  resembles  veratria  in  many  of  its  properties. 
This  abounds  chiefly  in  the  bulb  or  corm  and  seeds  of  the 
plant;  though  the  leaves  and  flowers  are  also  stated  to  have 
produced  poisonous  effects.  These  effects  are  such  as  usually 
accompany  the  more  active  irritants,  such  as  burning  pain  in 
the  throat,  great  thirst,  vomiting  and  serous  purging,  cramps, 
cold  collapsed  skin,  small  and  feeble  pulse,  suppression  of 
urine,  and  rapid  exhaustion.  The  nervous  system  does  not 
appear  to  be  affected;  the  intellect  remains  clear,  and  neither 


POISONING   BY   COLCHICUM. — COLCHICINA.  335 

convulsions  nor  loss  of  consciousness  are  reported  among  its 
effects. 

The  precise  quantity  necessary  to  occasion  a  fatal  result  is 
unknown :  it  sometimes  happens  that  an  ordinary  medicinal 
dose  will  occasion  alarming  depression.  A  drachm  of  the 
wine  of  the  fresh  root  has  been  known  to  produce  violent 
irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Dr.  Taylor  mentions 
a  case  reported  to  him,  in  which  three  and  a  half  drachms 
of  wine  of  colchicum,  taken  in  divided  doses,  caused  death 
on  the  fourth  day.  In  another  case,  in  which  an  ounce  of  the 
wine  was  taken,  death  occurred  in  thirty-nine  hours.  And 
in  another  case,  a  gentleman  swallowed,  by  mistake,  one 
ounce  and  a  half  of  the  wine  :  he  was  immediately  seized 
with  severe  pain  of  the  abdomen  ;  other  symptoms  of  irrita- 
tion set  in,  and  he  died  in  seven  hours.  Mr.  Fereday  reports 
a  case  in  which  two  ounces  of  the  wine  were  taken :  the 
symptoms  did  not  come  on  for  an  hour  and  a  half;  death 
ensued  in  forty-eight  hours,  after  violent  irritant  effects,  but 
with  no  signs  of  cerebral  disorder.  (Med.  Gaz.,  x.  p.  161.) 

A  frightful  accident  happened  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in 
November,  1873,  to  a  company  of  eight  or  ten  persons.  Some 
one  of  the  number  had  procured  (by  theft,  it  is  supposed)  a  half- 
gallon  bottle,  full  of  what  was  believed  to  be  wine,  but  which 
was  in  reality  wine  of  colchicum,  that  had  been  sent  to  some 
druggist's  shop.  Nearly  all  the  party  freely  partook  of  it, 
and  were  made  violently  sick  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours. 
Nausea,  severe  vomiting,  excruciating  pain  of  the  abdomen, 
cramps,  purging,  and  prostration  were  among  the  promi- 
nent symptoms.  Five  of  the  cases  terminated  fatally,  within 
thirty-six  hours. 

The  morbid  appearances  are  often  of  a  negative  character; 
no  marked  evidences  of  inflammation  are  present  in  numer- 
ous cases ;  while  in  others  there  are  patches  of  inflammation 
in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  with  softening  of  their  mucous 
membrane.  In  one  instance,  the  vessels  of  the  pia  mater 
were  much  injected,  while  there  was  no  redness  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach.  (Ann.  d'Hyg.,  1836, 
ii.  p.  394.)  The  lungs  have  been  found  deeply  congested. 

The  alkaloid  colchicina  occurs  in  fine,  white  crystals.     It  is 


336  MANUAL   OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

soluble  in  water,  has  a  feeble  alkaline  reaction,  and  a  bitter, 
acrid  taste.  Its  solutions  give  a  white  precipitate  with  tannic 
acid,  a  yellow  one  with  chloride  of  platinum,  and  a  brownish 
one  with  iodine.  Its  best  test  is  nitric  acid,  which,  when  con- 
centrated, produces  with  it  a  violet  color,  changing  to  blue 
and  brown.  The  solubility  in  water  distinguishes  it  from 
veratria,  as  also  the  fact  of  its  not  occasioning  sneezing,  like 
that  substance.  It  may  be  procured  from  organic  mixtures, 
and  from  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  organs  of  the 
body,  by  the  process  of  Stas,  as  described  on  page  110  (see 
also  STRYCHNIA).  Less  than  half  a  grain  of  colchicina  has 
proved  fatal.  There  is  no  known  antidote.  The  treatment 
consists  in  the  speedy  evacuation  of  the  poison  by  an  emetic 
(mustard  will  answer  very  well),  castor  oil,  with  demulcents, 
opium,  and  stimulants. 

SAVIN. — The  tops  of  the  Juniperus  sabina  abound  in  a  yellow, 
volatile  oil  (oil  of  savin),  which  maybe  obtained  by  distillation. 
Both  the  powder  and  the  oil  are  employed  in  medicine;  and 
both  possess  powerfully  irritant  properties. 

Savin  is  seldom,  if  ever,  resorted  to  directly  for  its  poison- 
ous properties ;  but  it  is  much  used  popularly  for  its  reputed 
powers  as  an  abortive:  many  fatal  cases  are  recorded  result- 
ing from  its  employment  with  this  view;  and  in  the  majority 
of  instances  death  has  resulted  from  the  violence  of  the  in- 
flammation set  up,  without  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus.  It 
is  not  believed  to  possess  any  specific  powers  as  an  abortive, 
the  uterine  contraction  being  due  to  the  violent  shock  upon 
the  system.  In  cases  of  poisoning  by  powdered  savin,  the 
latter  may  be  recognized,  after  death,  by  microscopic  exam- 
ination of  the  portions  of  the  leaves  found  in  the  stomach  or 
bowels,  or  of  the  matters  vomited. 

The  oil  can  be  recovered  by  distilling  the  matters  supposed 
to  contain  it,  and  agitating  the  distillate  with  one-third  of 
its  bulk  of  ether,  in  which  the  oil  is  completely  soluble.  It 
is  recognized  by  its  peculiar  powerful,  terebiuthiuate  odor. 
Nitric  acid  in  the  cold  slowly  imparts  to  it  a  dark,  red-brown 
color. 


POISONING   BY   BLACK   AND   GREEN   HELLEBORE.  337 

SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY    BLACK,    GREEN,    AND   WHITE    HELLEBORE. 

There  are  several  species  of  hellebore,  but  the  above- 
named  alone  require  our  attention. 

The  root  of  the  black  hellebore  (Helleborus  niger) — formerly 
named  Melampodium  —  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  It 
possesses  drastic  properties,  and  produces  other  powerful 
irritant  effects,  such  as  violent  vomiting,  pain  in  the  abdo- 
men, cold  sweats,  convulsions,  insensibility,  and  death.  In 
the  several  cases  of  poisoning  by  it,  reported  at  different 
times,  the  most  violent  symptoms  followed  its  use,  resem- 
bling the  collapse  of  malignant  cholera.  The  post-mortem 
lesions  were  such  as  follow  the  most  active  inflammation. 
The  infusion  of  the  root  and  leaves,  which  is  a  popular  remedy 
in  England  for  worms,  has  proved  fatal  in  several  instances. 

GREEN  HELLEBORE  ( Veratrum  viride. — American  Hellebore. — 
Indian  Poke). — This  species  of  hellebore  is  likewise  possessed 
of  very  active  properties,  and  has  occasioned  violent  and 
alarming  symptoms,  and,  in  some  instances,  even  fatal  results. 
The  tincture  of  veratrum  viride  is  officinal  in  the  British  and 
United  States  Pharmacopeias,  and  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 
powerful  depressant  to  the  circulation. 

In  an  instance  recorded  in  the  "American  Journal  of  the 
Medical  Sciences,"  October,  1865,  p.  563,  two  gentlemen 
swallowed,  by  mistake,  each  about  a  tablespoonful  of  the 
fluid  extract  of  veratrum  viride.  In  about  half  an  hour  one 
of  the  patients  was  found  almost  speechless,  retching  and 
vomiting  incessantly,  bathed  in  profuse  cold  perspiration,  and 
with  a  scarcely-perceptible  pulse.  On  the  administration  of 
a  teaspoonful  of  laudanum,  the  vomiting  ceased,  and  he 
rapidly  recovered.  In  the  other  case,  where  no  laudanum  was 
administered,  the  vomiting  continued  for  some  hours,  with 
a  total  loss  of  speech  and  of  locomotion  for  some  time.  A 
case  is  also  mentioned  where  an  ointment  of  veratrum  viride 
applied  to  an  ulcer -on  the  leg,  produced  vomiting. 

A  case  of  poisoning  by  the  tincture  was  mentioned  to  the 
author  by  Mr.  George  Ashmead,  a  druggist,  of  Philadelphia. 


338  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

A  physician,  aged  seventy-five,  of  feeble  health,  had  accus- 
tomed himself  to  the  daily  use  of  the  tincture  in  doses  of 
eight  or  ten  drops.  On  one  occasion  he  incautiously  swal- 
lowed about  fifteen  drops  of  the  fluid  extract.  In  about  twenty 
minutes  he  went  into  the  store  and  remarked  that  he  had 
taken  an  overdose.  He  swallowed  some  tincture  of  ginger 
and  laudanum,  after  which  he  vomited  and  retched  severely. 
His  countenance  became  pale  and  ghastly;  his  respiration 
feeble  and  labored;  his  pulse  weak  and  fluttering,  and  finally 
could  not  be  felt.  He  fell  back  as  though  dead ;  conscious- 
ness was  not  lost.  Recovery  gradually  took  place  under  the 
free  use  of  brandy,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  compound 
spirit  of  lavender,  together  with  sinapisms  to  the  feet,  spine, 
and  stomach. 

According  to  M.  Oulmont(Bul.  Gen.  de  Ther.,t.  Ixxiv.  p. 
145),  veratrum  viride,  although  resembling  veratrum  album 
in  its  general  sedative  effect,  differs  from  the  latter  in  its 
less  intense  action  on  the  alimentary  canal,  and  in  leaving 
no  post-mortem  signs  of  inflammation  in  that  organ. 

Two  active  alkaloidal  principles  exist  in  this  drug,  named 
veratroidia — from  its  resemblance  to  veratria — and  viridia, — 
the  latter  closely  resembling,  and  by  some  believed  to  be 
identical  with,  the  jervina  of  veratrum  album.  Veratroidia 
and  viridia  were  believed  by  their  discoverer,  Mr.  Charles 
Bullock,  of  Philadelphia  (Proceed,  of  Am.  Phar.  Assoc., 
1867),  to  be  nearly  identical  in  their  relations  ;  but  they  have 
certain  distinct  properties.  The  former  is  soluble  in  ether ; 
the  latter  is  not.  Veratroidia,  although  it  resembles  veratria 
in  causing  sneezing,  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its 
higher  melting-point,  by  its  producing  intense  redness  in 
contact  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  by  not  answer- 
ing to  Trapp's  test  for  veratria  (see  post). 

WHITE  HELLEBORE  (Veratrum  album). — This  is  the  most 
poisonous  of  all  the  species  of  hellebore.  The  powdered  root 
produces  a  strong  local  effect  on  the  system,  and  causes  vio- 
lent sneezing.  Taken  internally,  it  produces  a  sense  of  burn- 
ing heat,  and  constriction  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  great 
anxiety,  nausea,  violent  vomiting  and  purging,  pain  in  the 


POISONING   BY   WHITE    HELLEBORE. — VERATRIA.  339 

bowels,  trembling  of  the  limbs,  great  prostration,  cold  sweats, 
very  feeble  pulse,  followed  by  giddiness,  dilatation  of  the 
pupils,  convulsions,  insensibility,  and  death.  Some  instances 
are  recorded  in  which  purging  was  absent. 

In  one  case,  related  by  Wibmer,  twenty  grains  of  the 
powdered  root  caused  convulsions  and  death  in  three  hours ; 
and  in  another,  a  man  after  eating  the  root  died  in  six  hours. 
Death  was  preceded  by  vomiting  of  bloody  mucus,  and  by 
cold  sweats.  Its  external  application  to  the  epigastrium  has 
occasioned  vomiting,  as  in  the  case  of  the  American  helle- 
bore ( V.  viride). 

The  active  principle  of  white  hellebore  is  the  alkaloid 
veratria,  which  likewise  exists  in  the  Veratrum  sabadilla,  and  in 
sabadilla  or  cevadilla — the  seeds  and  fruit  of  Asagrsea  officinalis. 
The  precise  nature  of  this  active  principle  is  not  yet  posi- 
tively settled.  Two  new  alkaloids — barytina  and  jermna — 
were  discovered  in  it  by  Simon ;  and  these  are  believed  by 
Dr.  Peugnet  to  be  identical  with  the  veratroidia  and  viridia 
of  Bullock  (N.  Y.  Med.  Record,  1872,  p.  121) ;  but  this  is 
denied  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Wood  (Therapeutics,  1874,  p.  141). 

The  identity  of  veratria  with  the  active  alkaloid  existing 
in  veratrum  viride  appears  to  have  been  established  by  the 
researches  of  Worthington  (Jour,  of  Phil.  Col.  of  Phar.,  vol. 
xxix.,p.  204),  J.  G.  Richardson,  Prof.  S.  R.  Percy,  and  G.  J. 
Scattergood  (ibid.}. 

Veratria. — As  found  in  the  shops,  this  alkaloid  is  in  the 
form  of  a  nearly  colorless  powder.  It  can  be  crystallized, 
though  with  considerable  difficulty.  It  has  a  very  acrid  and 
somewhat  bitter  taste,  followed  by  a  sense  of  dry  ness  of  the 
fauces.  In  its  perfectly  pure  state,  it  is  devoid  of  bitterness. 
It  occasions  violent  irritation  of  the  nostrils,  causing  excess- 
ive and  prolonged  sneezing. 

It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  more  or  less  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform,  benzole,  and  amylic  alcohol.  It  has  a 
slightly  alkaline  reaction,  and  forms  soluble  salts  with  the 
acids.  When  heated  on  porcelain,  it  darkens  and  melts  into 
a  yellow  liquid,  blackens  and  spreads  into  an  abundant  car- 
bonaceous layer.  The  vapor  has  a  disagreeable,  pungent  odor, 
and,  when  received  on  a  clean  dish,  deposits  detached  crys- 


340  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

talloids  or  crystals,  described  as  rhomboidal,  but  among 
which  several  octahedra  can  be  discovered.  When  heated 
on  platinum-foil,  the  alkaloid  is  entirely  consumed.  (Guy's 
Foren.  Med.,  p.  618.) 

Effects. — As  found  in  the  shops,  veratria  varies  much  in 
strength.  According  to  Dr.  Wormley,  two  grains  of  nearly 
colorless  commercial  veratria  given  in  solution  to  a  cat,  im- 
mediately laid  it  prostrate ;  the  animal  frothed  at  the  mouth, 
and  died  in  less  than  a  minute  after  taking  the  dose.  Three 
grains  of  the  same  preparation  given  to  a  young  dog,  caused 
immediate  vomiting  and  purging,  involuntary  urination,  and 
great  prostration,  followed  by  death  in  two  hours  after  swal- 
lowing the  dose.  Of  another  sample,  two  grains  were  given 
to  two  small  dogs,  each,  without  producing  any  appreciable 
symptoms  other  than  slight  prostration. 

On  man,  veratria  is  capable  of  producing  very  violent  ef- 
fects. Dr.  Taylor  (On  Poisons,  p.  510)  mentions  the  case  of 
a  lady  in  whom  one-sixteenth  of  a  grain  occasioned  the  most 
alarming  symptoms,  such  as  insensibility,  cold  surface,  failing 
pulse,  and  collapse. 

The  proper  treatment  consists  in  speedy  evacuation  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  administration  of  stimulants  with  lau- 
danum, or  some  other  preparation  of  opium.  The  latter 
medicine  is  peculiarly  appropriate.  Tannin  has  also  been 
recommended  as  an  antidote. 

The  post-mortem  lesions  are  not  characteristic.  The  stomach 
and  bowels  have  been  found  inflamed,  and  sometimes  con- 
tracted. The  lungs,  liver,  and  heart  have  been  seen  gorged 
with  blood. 

Chemical  analysis. — The  most  characteristic  test  is  sulphuric 
acid.  When  the  pure  alkaloid  is  touched  with  a  drop  or  two 
of  the  concentrated  acid,  it  assumes  a  yellow  color,  then  a 
reddish  tint,  and  slowly  dissolves  to  a  pinkish  solution,  which, 
after  several  minutes,  acquires  a  deep  crimson-red  color. 
These  changes  are  brought  about  immediately  on  the  appli- 
cation of  heat.  Even  if  the  acid  be  very  dilute,  this  charac- 
teristic test  is  brought  out,  by  evaporating  to  dryness.  (See 
SULPHURIC  ACID,  ante.) 

The  delicacy  of  this  test  is  such  that,  according  to  Worm- 


POISONING    BY   VERATRIA. — CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS.          341 

ley,  less  than  one  ten-thousandth  of  a  grain  can  readily  be 
detected  by  first  warming  the  veratrine  deposit,  and  then 
adding  a  drop  of  the  acid,  and  continuing  the  heat. 

It  has  been  objected  to  this  test  that  other  substances  will 
give  a  red  color  with  sulphuric  acid, — such  as  solanine,  nar- 
ceine,  salicine,  piper ine,  etc.;  but  all  these  substances  are  im- 
mediately colored  by  cold  sulphuric  acid,  whereas  veratria 
requires  the  lapse  of  some  minutes  before  it  assumes  the 
characteristic  crimson-red  tint  on  the  application  of  the  cold 
acid.  Moreover,  the  colors  produced  with  the  above-nanied 
substances  and  sulphuric  acid,  under  the  prolonged  applica- 
tion of  heat,  are  different  from  the  color  produced  by  veratria. 

Trapp's  test  is  asserted  to  be  even  more  delicate.  This  con- 
sists in  warming  the  colorless  solution  of  veratria  in  concen- 
trated hydrochloric  acid,  when  a  very  persistent  dark-red 
color  ensues.  This  test  is  stated  to  be  especially  useful  when 
the  veratria  is  impure. 

Other  tests  mentioned  in  the  books  are  chloride  of  gold, 
which  gives  a  yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  soluble  in 
alcohol,  also  on  being  heated;  iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium 
gives  a  reddish-brown  precipitate,  soluble  in  alcohol;  bromine 
in  hydrochloric  acid  yields  a  yellow,  amorphous  deposit, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  which,  on  evaporation,  leaves  it  in  the 
form  of  groups  of  prismatic  crystals;  bichromate  of  potassa 
throws  down  a  yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  soluble  in 
strong  alcohol;  tannic  acid  throws  down  a  white,  flocculeut 
precipitate. 

In  organic  mixtures. — Veratria  may  be  separated  from  the 
contents  of  the  stomach,  and  from  the  blood,  by  a  modifica- 
tion of  Stas'  process,  and  the  chloroform  extract  tested  by 
sulphuric  acid.  Another  portion  dissolved  in  water,  with  a 
little  acetic  acid,  may  be  tried  with  the  different  liquid  tests 
above  mentioned.  Dr.  Wormiey  states  that  by  the  sulphuric 
acid  test  he  was  enabled  to  recognize  the  presence  of  veratria 
in  an  ounce  of  the  blood  of  a  cat  which  had  been  killed  in 
less  than  one  minute  by  two  grains  of  veratria.  This  shows 
the  great  rapidity  with  which  the  poison  had  entered  the 
circulation.  He  likewise  detected  its  presence,  by  means 
of  the  same  test,  in  six  fluidrachms  of  the  blood  of  a  dog 


342  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

which  had  died  in  two  hours  from  a  dose  of  three  grains  of 
veratria. 

SECTION   III. 

POISONING  BY  CARBOLIC  ACID. 

This  substance,  in  its  impure  state,  is  known  as  creosote. 
When  pure  it  is  in  the  form  of  delicate,  white,  needle-shaped 
crystals,  which  are  very  deliquescent ;  they  melt  at  95°  F., 
and  the  oily-looking  liquid  boils  and  is  entirely  volatilized 
at  370°.  It  has  a  peculiar,  powerful  odor  and  taste,  which 
would  naturally  prevent  its  being  administered  as  a  poison 
homicidally.  It  is  procured  by  the  fractional  distillation  of 
coal-tar,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a  disinfectant.  It  has 
been  the  cause  of  death  in  several  instances.  In  its  concen- 
trated form  it  acts  as  a  powerful  irritant,  both  externally  and 
internally,  whitening  and  hardening  the  skin  and  mucous 
membrane,  and  blunting  the  cutaneous  sensibility.  In  one 
instance  it  is  reported  to  have  destroyed  life  by  its  external 
application  (Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  Oct.  8,  1870). 

A  case  of  poisoning  by  the  external  use  of  carbolic  acid  is 
reported  in  the  "  Canada  MedicalJournal,"  July,  1870.  A  man 
aged  eighty  years,  affected  with  acute  eczema,  which  almost 
literally  covered  his  whole  body,  was  treated  in  the  Montreal 
General  Hospital  with  an  ointment  consisting  of  one  part  of 
carbolic  acid  to  four  of  lard,  spread  upon  lint :  it  was  applied 
over  the  arms  and  thighs,  and  covered  with  oiled  silk.  In  an 
hour  and  a  half  the  man  was  reported  to  be  dying.  lie  was 
found  in  a  profound  coma;  the  pupils  firmly  contracted; 
breathing  stertorous;  pulse  weak,  rapid,  and  flickering;" 
surface  of  the  body  livid;  extremities  cold  ;  much  mucus  in 
the  bronchial  tubes;  inability  to  swallow,  and  profound 
insensibility.  By  the  application  of  powerful  stimulants 
internally  and  externally,  he  at  last  recovered,  after  free 
vomiting.  The  peculiar  odor  was  distinctly  noticed  in  the 
vomited  matters.  Carbolic  acid  also  affects  the  brain  like  a 
narcotic. 

Symptoms. — In  the  concentrated  state,  it  produces  a  burn- 
ing sensation  in  the  mouth,  throat,  O3sophagus,  and  stomach, 


POISONING   BY   CARBOLIC   ACID. — TESTS.  343 

in  the  act  of  swallowing, — in  this  respect  resembling  the 
effects  of  the  strong  mineral  acids  and  alkalies.  There  is 
violent  pain  in  the  abdomen,  with  vomiting  of  frothy  mucus ; 
cold  and  clammy  skin;  the  lips,  eyelids,  and  ears  are  livid; 
pulse  small  and  frequent;  respiration  difficult,  with  frothing 
at  the  mouth.  There  is  a  marked  odor  of  carbolic  acid  per- 
ceived in  the  breath,  and  also  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
The  pupils  are  contracted  and  insensible  to  light;  general 
insensibility  supervenes,  which  soon  passes  into  coma,  with 
stertorous  breathing.  The  stools  and  urine,  when  passed, 
have  been  dark-colored, — the  latter  almost  black. 

Post-mortem  lesions. — The  inside  of  the  mouth  and  throat 
is  whitened,  and  sometimes  corroded ;  the  gullet  is  white, 
hardened,  and  corrugated;  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
stomach  has  been  found  much  hardened,  without  the  usual 
signs  of  inflammation.  The  lungs  have  been  found  deeply 
congested,  and  the  bronchi  tilled  with  a  brown-red,  thick 
mucus. 

Fatal  quantity. — Dr.  Taylor  reports  the  following  cases.  A 
woman  died  from  swallowing  a  wineglassful  of  carbolic  acid, 
— probably  a  weak,  aqueous  solution.  She  did  not  speak 
after  taking  it,  and  died  in  about  half  an  hour.  (Phar.  Jour., 
July,  1872,  p.  75.)  A  child  died  at  Guy's  Hospital  in  twelve 
hours  after  swallowing  two  teaspooufuls  of  the  ordinary 
brown  liquid  carbolic  acid.  In  another  case  a  tablespoonful 
proved  fatal  to  a  young  man.  In  another  instance  an  adult 
died  in  fifty  minutes  after  swallowing  one  or  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  the  liquid  acid.  (See  Husemann's  Jahres.,  1872,  p.  523.) 

In  a  case  reported  in  the  "Journal  de  Pharmacie  et  de 
Chimie,"  December,  1871,  an  unknown  quantity  of  a  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  was  swallowed  by  a  man  aged  thirty-two,  in 
mistake  for  wine.  He  was  immediately  seized  with  nausea, 
cold  sweat,  stupor,  and  unconsciousness.  There  were  in- 
sensibility and  contraction  of  the  pupil;  rapid,  stertorous 
respiration,  with  trachea!  rales;  small  and  frequent  pulse; 
irregular  heart-beat;  suppression  of  urine;  and  death  from 
asphyxia  in  about  nine  hours. 

Chemical  analysis. — The  strong,  peculiar  odor  perceptible 
in  the  breath  and  in  the  matters  vomited,  as  likewise  in 


344  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

the  body  after  death,  will  generally  be  sufficient  to  identify 
it.  It  has  a  slight  acid  reaction,  and  forms  salts  with  bases. 
It  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  and  gives  a  greasy  stain 
to  paper.  It  imparts  a  deep-violet  color  to  perchloride  of 
iron,  and  a  bluish  tint  to  ammonia  and  to  hypochlorite  of 
lime.  Heated  with  the  addition  of  cyanide  of  potassium  it 
gives  a  red  tint.  The  above  are  the  best  chemical  tests  at 
present  known ;  but  the  peculiar  od.or  is  probably  the  most 
reliable  criterion  of  its  presence. 

Carbolic  acid  has  been  detected  in  the  urine  both  by  the 
odor  and  by  chemical  reagents.  The  urine  should  be  agi- 
tated with  an  excess  of  pure  ether  and  allowed  to  stand ;  the 
ethereal  layer  is  then  to  be  removed  by  a  pipette  and  evap- 
orated in  a  glass  vessel.  A  minute  oily  residue  is  left,  having 
the  physical  characters  of  carbolic  acid.  This,  when  dis- 
solved in  water,  will  yield  the  above-mentioned  chemical 
reactions. 

As  an  antidote  in  carbolic  acid  poisoning,  Dr.  T.  Husemaim 
recommends  a  saturated  solution  of  saccharate  of  lime. 
(Neues  Jahres.  fiir  Pharm.,  Sept.,  1871.) 

The  root  of  the  Yellow  Jessamine  (Gelsemium  sempernrens), 
growing  in  the  Southern  States,  has  been  found  by  Dr. 
Wormley  to  contain  a  very  powerful,  poisonous  alkaloid, 
gelseminia:  one-eighth  of  a  grain  given  hypodermically  killed 
a  rabbit  in  an  hour  and  a  half;  there  were  great  prostration, 
inability  to  move,  gasping  respiration,  dilated  pupils,  but  no 
convulsions.  He  also  discovered  another  organic  principle 
— gelseminic  acid.  This  is  crystalline,  and  when  treated  in  the 
solid  state  with  a  drop  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  it  becomes 
.yellow  or  reddish,  according  to  the  quantity  employed.  When 
an  excess  of  ammonia  is  added,  it  acquires  a  blood-red  color. 
The  solution  in  potassa  is  fluorescent,  presenting  a  deep-blue 
color  on  the  surface.  Gelseminic  acid  was  thus  detected  in 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  some  mouths  after  death.  (Amer. 
Jour,  of  Pharmacy,  Jan.,  1870.) 

Yellow  jessamine  has  been  considerably  employed  in  medi- 
cine, particularly  in  the  Southern  States.  Several  cases  are 
recorded  of  fatal  results  from  its  administration. 


POISONING  BY  YELLOW  JESSAMINE. — POISONOUS  FUNGI.    345 

Prof.  "Wormley  has  reported  a  fatal  case  of  a  young, 
healthy  married  woman,  several  weeks  advanced  in  preg- 
nancy, who  took  three  teaspoorifuls  of  the  extract.  Two 
hours  afterwards  she  complained  of  pain  in  the  stomach, 
nausea,  and  dimness  of  vision.  These  symptoms  were  soon 
succeeded  by  great  restlessness,  ineffectual  efforts  to  vomit, 
and  free  general  perspiration.  In  about  five  hours,  the  pulse 
was  feeble,  irregular,  and  sometimes  intermittent;  there  was 
great  prostration,  with  irregular  breathing  and  slow  respira- 
tion ;  the  skin  was  dry,  extremities  cold,  pupils  expanded 
and  insensible  to  light,  the  eyes  fixed,  and  inability  to  raise 
the  lids.  Sinking  gradually  took  place  without  convulsions, 
and  death  occurred  in  about  seven  and  a  half  hours  after 
the  poison  had  been  taken.  Judging  by  comparison  with 
other  samples  experimented  upon,  Dr.  Wormley  estimated 
that  the  quantity  of  the  alkaloid  gelseminia  swallowed  could 
not  have  exceeded  one-sixth  of  a  grain.  This  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  this  alkaloid  is  one  of  the  most  potent  poisons 
known. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  in  this  case  presented  nothing 
peculiar.  The  membranes  and  substances  of  the  brain  and 
medulla  oblongata  were  normal;  the  lungs  natural  in  appear- 
ance, with  the  superficial  veins  congested;  the  heart  normal 
in  size,  its  superficial  veins  injected,  and  its  cavities  greatly 
distended  with  dark,  grumous  blood,  inside  of  which  was 
found  a  well-defined  membrane,  identical  in  appearance  with 
that  found  in  diphtheria  and  pseudo-membranous  croup;  the 
stomach,  intestines,  peritoneum,  liver,  all  healthy;  the  left 
kidney  congested.  Dr.  Wormley  succeeded  in  detecting  both 
the  alkaloid  and  the  peculiar  acid  (gelseminic)  in  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  April,  1870,  p. 
531);  although  these  had  undergone  considerable  decompo- 
sition, and  the  examination  was  not  made  for  several  months 
after  death. 

SECTION   IV. 

POISONOUS   MUSHROOMS    (FUNGl). 

Among  the  numerous  species  of  Fungi  many  are  edible, 
and  many  are  poisonous.  In  this  country  and  Great  Britain 


346  MANUAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

only  a  very  few  species  are  regarded  as  wholesome,  viz., 
Agaricus  campestris,  or  common  mushroom;  Tuber  cibarium, 
or  common  truffle;  and  Morchella  esculenta,  or  morelle.  In 
France  and  Germany,  and  especially  in  Russia,  a  large  num- 
ber of  other  species  are  considered  wholesome,  and,  in  fact, 
constitute  an  important  part  of  the  common  food  of  the  people. 

The  following  facts  may  be  regarded  as  established  con- 
cerning these  vegetable  products.  Certain  fungi  usually 
considered  noxious  become  safe  after  being  dried :  this  is 
the  case,  according  to  Fodere,  with  the  Agaricus  piperatus 
(Med.  Leg.,  iv.  61).  Boiling  in  water  has  a  still  more  de- 
cided effect.  According  to  Dr.  Pouchet  (Jour,  de  Chim. 
Med.,  1839,  p.  322;  quoted  in  Christison  on  Poisons),  the 
poisonous  principle  of  two  of  the  most  deadly  fungi,  Amanita 
muscaria  and  A.  venenata,  may  be  completely  removed  by  boil- 
ing in  water.  A  quart  of  water  in  which -five  plants  had 
been  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  killed  a  dog  in  eight  hours, 
and  again  another  in  a  day ;  but  the  boiled  fungi  themselves 
had  no  effect  on  two  other  dogs,  and  a  third  which  was  fed 
on  boiled  amanitas  for  two  months  actually  fattened  on  this 
food.  From  the  above  facts,  it  would  appear  that  the  poi- 
sonous principle  of  these  fungi  is  of  a  volatile  nature,  and 
capable  of  being  dissipated  by  heat.  Climate  and  cultiva- 
tion appear  also  to  influence  their  deleterious  properties : 
thus,  according  to  the  same  authority,  the  Agaricus  piperatus, 
the  A.  acris,  and  the  A.  necator,  which  are  considered  to  be 
poisonous  in  Britain  and  France,  are  freely  eaten  in  Russia; 
and  the  Amanita  muscaria,  which  is  regarded  even  in  Russia 
as  violently  poisonous,  is  used  in  Kamschatka  for  preparing 
an  intoxicating  beverage. 

So,  on  the  other  hand,  our  common  edible  fungi  appear  at 
times  to  acquire  noxious  properties  in  very  moist  seasons, 
and  towards  the  close  of  summer  and  autumn. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  certain  persons  cannot  eat  the 
most  harmless  mushrooms  without  suffering  severely  from 
irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  together  with  narcotic 
symptoms.  This  is,  however,  dependent  on  idiosyncrasy: 
the  same  thing  occurs  in  reference  to  other  kinds  of  diet, 
more  particularly  certain  varieties  of  n'sh. 


POISONING   BY   MUSHROOMS. — SYMPTOMS.  347 

It  is  impossible  to  determine,  at  present,  what  is  the  pre- 
cise character  of  the  poisonous  principle  of  the  noxious 
fungi,  or  whether  this  principle  is  identical  in  them  all. 
M.  Braconnot  ascertained  that  some  of  them  contain  a  sac- 
charine matter,  others  an  acrid  resin,  and  others  again  a 
volatile  acrid  principle:  they  all  contain  a  spongy  substance, 
to  which  the  name  fungin  has  been  given.  Later,  M.  Letel- 
lier  discovered  in  some  of  the  fungi  two  poisonous  princi- 
ples :  one,  a  very  volatile  acrid  matter,  easily  removed  by 
boiling  and  drying,  or  by  weak  acids,  alkalies,  and  alcohol ; 
the  other  principle  more  fixed,  as  it  resists  heat  and  the  above 
solvents,  but  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  capable  of  forming 
crystallizable  salts  with  acids.  To  this  latter  substance  he 
attributes  the  narcotic  effects  of  the  fungi.  (Arch.  Gen.  de 
Med.,  xi.  p.  94.) 

Symptoms. — The  effects  of  poisonous  mushrooms  on  man 
are  those  of  the  narcotico-irritants ;  that  is,  they  occasion  vio- 
lent vomiting,  purging,  pain  in  the  abdomen,  thirst,  anxiety, 
and  cold  sweats,  together  with  giddiness,  dimness  of  vision, 
trembling,  staggering  as  if  from  intoxication,  delirium,  dis- 
position to  rave  and  wander  about,  illusions,  stupor,  coma, 
dilatation  of  the  pupils,  and  convulsions,  especially  in  fatal 
cases. 

It  is  somewhat  singular  that  the  very  same  fungi  have  acted 
on  some  members  of  a  family  as  irritants  merely,  and  on 
others  as  narcotics.  Generally  speaking,  when  the  narcotic 
symptoms  are  the  more  prominent,  they  come  on  very  soon 
after  partaking  of  the  noxious  variety, — within  an  hour  or 
two;  but  when  the  irritant  effects  are  the  more  evident,  often 
these  do  not  appear  for  many  hours  after  eating, — sometimes 
later  than  twenty-four  hours;  and  in  these  cases  narcotism 
is  apt  to  follow  the  irritant  operation.  Orfila  (Toxicol.,  ii.  p. 
433)  relates  the  following  interesting  case  of  poisoning  of  a 
family  of  six  persons  by  the  Amanita  citrina.  The  wife,  the 
servant,  and  one  of  the  children  had  vomiting,  followed  by 
deep  stupor;  but  they  recovered.  The  husband  had  violent 
cholera;  he  recovered  also.  The  two  other  children  became 
profoundly  lethargic  and  comatose;  emetics  had  no  effect, 
and  death  soon  ensued.  The  individuals  who  recovered 


348  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

were  not  completely  well  till  three  weeks  after  the  fatal  re- 
past. Dr.  Taylor  relates  a  similar  result  from  the  same  poi- 
sonous fungus  (Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed.,  1873,  p.  231).  The 
above  cases  show  the  tendency  of  the  poisonous  fungi  to 
cause  in  one  person  pure  irritation,  and  in  another  pure 
narcotism. 

The  morbid  appearances  that  have  been  observed  in  persons 
thus  poisoned  are  imperfectly  described.  The  body  is  gen- 
erally livid;  the  blood  fluid;  cadaveric  rigidity  is  absent; 
there  are  numerous  ecchymoses  in  the  serous  membranes 
and  the  parenchymatous  organs;  decomposition  of  the  tis- 
sues; signs  of  violent,  and  even  gangrenous,  inflammation  of 
the  stomach,  and  congestion  of  the  cerebral  vessels. 

The  only  medico-legal  interest  connected  with  this  subject  is 
in  the  fact  that  the  symptoms  occasioned  by  eating  poisonous 
fungi  might  be  attributed  to  some  other  poison,  homicidally 
administered.  A  microscopic  examination  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels  will  usually  reveal  the  botanical 
character  of  the  fragments  of  the  fungi,  if  the  poisoning  has 
been  due  to  them.  Sir  R.  Christison  (On  Poisons,  p.  929) 
mentions  a  remarkable  case,  which  shows  how  easily  criminal 
poisoning  might  be  accomplished  by  mingling  arsenic,  for 
example,  with  some  of  the  noxious  fungi,  eaten  at  a  meal. 
A  servant-girl  poisoned  her  mistress  by  mixing  arsenic  with 
a  dish  of  mushrooms.  She  died  in  twenty-four  hours,  after 
suffering  severely  from  vomiting  and  colicky  pains.  Dissec- 
tion revealed  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  with  gangrenous 
spots,  clots  of  blood,  and  redness  of  the  intestines.  The  death 
was,  however,  ascribed  to  the  unwholesome  mushrooms; 
and  the  real  cause  was  not  discovered  till  thirteen  years 
afterwards,  when  the  culprit  confessed  the  crime. 

(For  an  excellent  and  full  description  of  the  Medicinal 
and  Toxicological  Properties  of  the  Cryptogamic  Plants  of 
the  United  States,  consult  Dr.  F.  Peyre  Porcher's  Essay,  in 
Trans,  of  the  American  Association,  vol.  vii.  See  also  Orh'la 
and  Christisou,  on  the  subject  of  Poisonous  Fungi.) 


POISONING   BY   CANTHARIDES.  349 

CHAPTER    XXL 

ANIMAL    IRRITANTS. 

CANTHARIDES. — POISONOUS  ANIMAL  FOOD. — SAUSAGE-POISON. — TRICHINIASIS. 
— CHEKSK-POISON. — POISONOUS  FISH. — MUSSELS. — PUTRESCENT  FOOD. — POI- 
SONED FLESH. 

SECTION   I. 

POISONING   BY   CANTHARIDES. 

THE  Cantharis  vesicatoria,  or  Spanish  fly,  is  much  used  in 
medicine,  externally  as  a  vesicant,  and  also  sometimes  inter- 
nally. In  overdoses  it  is  capable  of  producing  very  violent, 
and  even  fatal,  effects,  by  its  powerful  irritant  action  on 
the  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane,  and  on  the  genito- 
urinary organs;  and  in  fatal  cases,  causing  decided  cerebral 
symptoms.  The  fly  owes  its  active  properties  to  a  peculiar 
crystalline  principle  termed  cantkaridin,  which  exists  in  the 
proportion  of  about  one  grain  to  half  an  ounce  of  the  powder. 
(Guy's  Forensic  Med.,  p.  631.) 

The  Spanish  fly  is  distinguished  by  the  shining,  golden- 
green  color  of  the  head,  legs,  and  wing-cases.  It  is  kept  in 
the  shops  in  the  form  of  powder,  tincture,  liniment,  and  plas- 
ter. The  powder  and  plaster  are  readily  identified  by  the 
numerous  shining,  golden-green  particles  which  they  contain. 
Prof.  Guy  (loc.  tit)  recommends  a  very  simple  mode  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  powder,  namely,  by  heat.  A  very  minute 
portion — even  the  one-thousandth  of  a  grain — is  placed  on 
a  flat  porcelain  slab  (a  small  crucible-lid  reversed  answers 
well),  within  a  ring  of  glass,  and  a  glass  disk  is  laid  over  it. 
On  raising  the  temperature  to  about  212°  F.,  a  white  subli- 
mate appears  on  the  glass  disk;  and  when  this  is  examined 
by  the  microscope,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  crystals  of  canthari- 
din.  If  the  sublimate  be  amorphous,  or  not  distinctly  crystal- 
line, it  should  be  dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  ether,  which, 
on  evaporation,  will  deposit  it  in  the  crystalline  form. 

Symptoms, — When  taken  in  the  dose  of  two  or  three 
drachms  of  the  powder,  or  of  one  or  two  ounces  of  the  tincture, 

23 


350  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

cantharides  occasion  a  burning  sensation  in  the  mouth  and 
throat,  great  difficulty  of  swallowing,  with  a  sense  of  con- 
striction. This  sensation  speedily  extends  to  the  gullet  and 
stomach,  and  is  succeeded  by  violent  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
increased  by  pressure.  There  are  nausea  and  vomiting  of 
bloody  mucus  and  shreds  of  membrane,  along  with  great 
thirst  and  dryness  of  the  fauces.  Very  soon  the  character- 
istic impression  on  the  genito-urinary  organs  displays  itself; 
there  is  a  heavy,  dull  pain  in  the  loins,  an  urgent  and  inces- 
sant desire  to  urinate,  which  is  attended  with  great  pain  and 
the  voiding  of  merely  a  few  drops  of  bloody  urine,  accom- 
panied with  tenesmus.  Priapism  frequently  occurs  in  males, 
with  occasional  satyriasis  and  seminal  emissions ;  and  swell- 
ing and  heat  of  the  labia  in  women,  together  with  abortion, 
in  the  pregnant  condition. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  female  genital  organs  are  fre- 
quently attacked  with  gangrene,  even  in  cases  where  no 
sexual  excitement  has  been  manifested.  (Wharton  and  Stille, 
Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  474.) 

Purging  generally  supervenes,  the  matters  discharged  being 
mixed  with  blood  and  mucus,  and  accompanied  with  tenes- 
mus.  A  careful  inspection  of  the  discharges  from  the  stom- 
ach and  bowels  will  generally  reveal  the  shining  green 
particles  already  alluded  to,  if  the  poison  has  been  swallowed 
in  the  form  of  powder.  Sometimes  profuse  salivation  occurs ; 
and  in  fatal  cases  death  is  preceded  by  faintuess,  giddiness, 
and  convulsions.  Cantharides  have  the  popular  reputation 
of  possessing  aphrodisiac  properties  ;  and  they  have  been  fre- 
quently administered  with  the  view  of  exciting  the  sexual 
passions, — and  sometimes  with  serious,  and  even  fatal,  con- 
sequences. 

When  the  tincture  has  been  taken,  the  symptoms  come  on 
more  rapidly  ;  and  the  burning  and  constriction  of  the  mouth 
and  throat,  together  with  the  difficulty  of  swallowing,  are 
more  strongly  marked. 

All  the  above  symptoms,  even  to  the  fatal  result,  have  been 
produced  by  the  external  application  of  this  poison.  The 
painful  effect  on  the  genito-urinary  organs,  termed  straitg'/ry, 
occasioned  in  many  persons  by  the  application  of  an  ordinary 


POISONING   BY   CANTHARIDES. — LESIONS.  351 

fly-blister,  is  familiar  to  every  physician.  Dr.  Taylor  (On 
Poisons,  p.  513)  mentions  the  case  of  a  young  girl  who  was 
killed  by  the  external  application  of  a  blistering  ointment, 
that  was  rubbed  over  her  whole  body  in  mistake  for  sul- 
phur ointment,  which  had  been  prescribed  for  the  itch.  Al- 
though the  ointment  was  washed  off',  the  cuticle  came  off 
with  it,  and  the  girl  died  in  five  days  with  the  symptoms 
above  described.  Guibourt  has  reported  a  case  of  a  young 
man  suffering  from  pleurisy,  who  had  a  large  blister  applied 
to  his  side :  the  result  was  violent  irritation  of  the  urinary 
passages,  followed  by  collapse  and  death.  (L'Abeille  Med., 
xv.  153.) 

Fatal  quantity. — The  medicinal  dose  of  cantharides  is  one 
to  two  grains  of  the  powder,  and  ten  to  thirty  drops  of  the 
tincture,  gradually  increased  until  slight  symptoms  of  stran- 
gury are  produced.  But,  as  the  powdered  flies  speedily 
deteriorate,  it  frequently  happens  that  all  the  preparations 
of  cantharides,  as  found  in  the  shops,  are  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
destitute  of  active  properties, — a  circumstance  that  will  ac- 
count for  the  large  quantities  that  have  been  taken  without 
producing  serious  results.  The  smallest  quantity  of  the 
powder  that  has  destroyed  life  is  recorded  by  Orfila,  in  the 
case  of  a  young  woman,  who  aborted  and  died  in  four  days 
after  taking  twenty-four  grains  in  two  doses.  In  this  instance, 
however,  the  death  may  have  been  indirectly  due  to  the 
abortion.  An  ounce  of  the  tincture  occasioned  death  in  four- 
teen days,  in  a  boy  aged  seventeen  years. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  antidote  to  this  poison.  It  should 
be  removed  as  speedily  as  possible  from  the  system  by  the 
free  use  of  emetics  and  cathartics.  Opium,  in  the  form  of 
enema  or  suppository,  is  especially  advantageous  for  relieving 
the  painful  strangury;  and  likewise  the  free  use  of  demul- 
cent drinks.  Leeches,  and  other  applications  to  the  abdomen, 
may  be  required. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — The  whole  alimentary  canal  has 
been  found  in  a  state  of  violent  inflammation.  The  lining 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  throat  has  been  completely  de- 
stroyed. In  one  case,  in  which  life  was  prolonged  for  four- 
teen days,  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  was  not  in- 


352  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

flamed,  but  it  was  pulpy,  and  easily  detached.  Generally,  the 
ureters,  kidneys,  and  bladder  are  more  or  less  inflamed.  The 
brain  has  been  found  congested.  The  most  satisfactory  post- 
mortem evidence  of  the  nature  of  the  poison  is  the  presence  of 
the  green,  metallic-looking  points  scattered  over  the  gastro- 
intestinal mucous  membrane.  These  may  often  be  recognized 
by  the  naked  eye,  and  always  by  the  aid  of  a  good  lens.  The 
suspected  liquids,  after  being  mixed  with  alcohol,  may  be 
suffered  to  evaporate  on  a  plate  of  glass,  which  will  enable 
the  observer  to  identify  the  shining-colored  particles,  when 
dry.  Or,  the  stomach  and  intestines  may  be  inflated  and 
dried,  after  which,  on  cutting  them  open  and  examining 
them  upon  a  flat  surface,  the  shining  points  maybe  observed 
closely  adherent  to  the  mucous  membrane. 

According  to  Orfila,  the  powder  is  not  affected  by  putre- 
faction, it  having  been  recognized  nine  months  after  death. 
If,  however,  the  tincture  has  been  taken,  then,  of  course,  this 
physical  examination  would  be  impracticable.  In  this  case 
it  would  be  necessary  to  endeavor  to  procure  the  evidence  of 
cantharidin,  by  the  means  to  be  presently  described. 

Chemical  analysis. — The  powder  is  to  be  identified  in  the 
manner  above  pointed  out.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  sus- 
pected solids  and  liquids  should  be  dried  and  digested  in 
successive  portions  of  ether  until  exhausted.  This  will  dis- 
solve out  the  cantharidin.  The  ethereal  solution  is  to  be 
evaporated  to  an  extract,  and  some  of  the  latter,  spread  upon 
oiled  silk,  should  be  applied  on  the  lips,  or  on  a  thin  portion 
of  the  skin  of  the  arm,  when  the  resulting  vesication  would 
denote  the  presence  of  cantharidin.  Chloroform  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  ether. 

Cantharidin  occurs  in  colorless  crystalline  plates,  of  vari- 
ous forms  and  thickness.  It  may  be  identified  by  the  action 
of  heat  (212°  F.),  causing  it  to  sublime  in  crystals,  as  before 
described  (ante,  p.  349).  Again,  the  negative  action  of  both 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  upon  it  serves  to  distinguish  it  from 
all  the  poisonous  alkaloids  or  neutral  principles.  Further, 
its  vesicant  property  will  serve  to  identify  it.  The  one- 
hundredth  of  a  grain,  dissolved  in  ether,  is  said  to  possess 
vesicating  powers. 


SAUSAGE-POISON. — TRICHINIASIS.  353 


SECTION   II. 

POISONOUS  ANIMAL   FOOD. — SAUSAGE-POISON. — TRICHINIASIS. — CHEESE- 
POISON. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  certain  kinds  of  animal  food 
will  produce  violent  symptoms  in  persons  partaking  of  it, 
resembling  those  of  an  irritant  poison.  Sometimes  this  effect 
can  be  explained  by  an  idiosyncrasy  of  the  patient ;  but  where 
several  persons  partaking  of  the  same  food  are  simultaneously 
affected  with  the  same  symptoms,  such  an  explanation  will 
not  suffice,  and  the  cause  must  be  referred  to  some  noxious 
agent,  either  introduced  from  without,  or  else  inherent  in  the 
food  itself.  Such  cases  may  readily  come  within  the  scope 
of  a  medico-legal  inquiry,  as  the  symptoms  might  very  natu- 
rally be  referred  to  the  effect  of  an  irritant  poison  adminis- 
tered with  criminal  intent. 

The  articles  of  food  that  have  been  the  most  frequent 
sources  of  irritant  poisoning  are  sausages,  cheese,  diseased 
pork,  certain  shell-fish,  especially  mussels,  poisoned  flesh, 
and  diseased  or  putrefying  flesh. 

SAUSAGE-POISON. — The  precise  nature  of  this  animal  poison 
has  never  been  determined.  It  is  of  an  acrid,  narcotic  nature, 
and  produces  very  alarming  symptoms,  which  may  result 
fatally.  They  are  usually  slow  in  appearing,  several  days 
elapsing  before  they  are  developed.  It  is  chiefly  in  Germany, 
where  the  sausages,  after  being  cured  and  dried,  are  generally 
eaten  uncooked,  that  the  most  formidable  cases  occur.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  the  poisonous  principle  is  the 
result  of  a  partial  decomposition  or  putrefaction,  determining 
the  production  of  a  peculiar  fatty  acid,  named  by  Buchner 
botulinic  acid.  This  is  a  non-volatile  product,  soluble  in  alco- 
hol, insoluble  in  water,  having  a  peculiar  nauseous  odor  and 
disagreeable,  oleaginous  taste,  followed  by  an  extraordinary 
dryness  of  the  throat  for  several  hours.  It  proved  fatally 
poisonous  to  dogs  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  Physicians 
and  physiologists  of  the  present  day  are  disposed  to  attribute 
the  formidable  effects  of  sausage-poison  to  a  certain  species 
of  eutozoon  named  trichina  sinralis,  which  especially  infests  the 


354  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

muscles  of  the  pig ;  and  which,  when  the  pork  is  eaten  by 
man,  unless  it  has  been  thoroughly  cooked  by  being  exposed 
for  a  long  time  to  a  temperature  above  212°  F.,  very  soon 
penetrates  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines,  and  thence 
spreads  through  the  muscles  generally.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  repeated  researches  that  the  trichina  is  a  vivipa- 
rous parasite,  which  passes  the  greater  part  of  its  existence  in 
the  chrysalis  state  in  the  muscles  of  the  pig.  They  appear 
as  small,  ovoid  bodies,  or  capsules,  resembling  white  specks, 
to  the  naked  eye,  but  distinctly  perceptible  by  means  of  a 
magnifier.  They  are  often  so  numerous  as  to  give  the  flesh  a 
speckled  appearance.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  much  of 
what  is  termed  measly  pork  is  really  of  a  trichinous  nature. 
According  to  Dr.  Keller,  as  many  as  three  hundred  thousand 
have  been  counted  in  half  a  pound  of  raw  meat.  When  this 
flesh  is  eaten  as  food,  the  parasite  finds  in  the  human  stomach 
a  proper  medium  for  its  full  development  into  a  worm.  The 
period  of  incubation  in  the  stomach  and  bowels  of  man  or 
of  warm-blooded  animals,  is  from  six  to  eight  days;  and 
during  this  time  it  there  thrives  and  propagates  to  an  almost 
incredible  extent.  Dr.  Keller  states  that  in  three  or  four 
days  a  single  female  produces  one  hundred  or  more  young 
ones,  which  begin  in  the  sixth  day  to  leave  the  parent  ani- 
mal; and  he  estimates  that  in  a  few  days  after  eating  half  a 
pound  of  infected  meat,  the  stomach  and  intestines  may 
contain  thirty  millions  of  these  worms. 

When  once  introduced  into  the  alimentary  canal,  these 
worms  leave  their  capsules,  produce  young  which  migrate 
through  the  walls  of  the  intestines  into  the  various  muscles 
of  the  body,  where  they  become  encysted  in  new  capsules 
formed  at  the  expense  and  by  the  destruction  of  the  mus- 
cular tissue.  The  sudden  liberation  of  a  multitude  of  these 
parasites  produces  the  characteristic  irritation  of  the  bowels, 
and  the  subsequent  loss  of  muscular  power,  so  generally  wit- 
nessed in  the  disease. 

The  symptoms  of  trichiniasis  usually  manifest  themselves 
within  a  few  days  after  the  iugestion  of  the  diseased  meat. 
There  is  first  loss  of  appetite,  pain  in  the  bowels,  purging, 
sickness,  prostration,  swelling  of  the  eyelids  and  joints,  pro- 


POISONING   BY   CHEESE.  355 

fuse,  clammy  perspiration,  and  fever  of  a  typhoid  character. 
Death  results  either  from  paralysis,  or  from  peritonitis  and 
irritative  fever.  No  mode  of  medical  treatment  has  availed 
to  arrest  the  disease,  when  it  is  once  established  in  the  system. 
It  might  readily  happen  that  the  symptoms  above  described 
might  be  attributed  to  slow  poisoning  by  one  of  the  mineral 
irritants:  hence  the  importance  of  a  proper  understanding 
of  this  subjection  medico-legal  grounds.  A  careful  micro- 
scopic examination  of  the  suspected  food,  and,  in  case  of 
death,  of  a  piece  of  the  muscle,  will  reveal  the  true  parasitic 
cause  of  the  disorder.  (For  a  full  account  of  trichiniasis,  see 
paper  by  Dr.  Keller,  of  Darmstadt,  also  Dr.  Liicke's  paper, 
in  Casper's  Yierteljahr.,  1864,  No.  1,  p.  103,  and  No.  2,  p. 
269 ;  also,  Dr.  Dalton's  paper,  in  N.  Y.  Med.  Record,  April  1, 
1869;  also,  Chicago  Med.  Jour.,  Aug.,  1866;  and  Canada 
Med.  Jour.,  1870-1.) 

CHEESE-POISON. — The  symptoms  which  occasionally  result 
from  eating  cheese  strongly  resemble  those  of  an  irritant 
poison.  What  is  the  precise  nature  of  the  noxious  material 
in  the  cheese,  has  never  been  positively  determined.  In 
some  instances,  where  a  number  of  persons  have  suffered 
from  severe  cholera  morbus  after  partaking  of  cheese,  it  has 
been  impossible  to  discover  any  injurious  substance,  either 
of  an  inorganic  or  organic  nature,  on  the  most  careful  analy- 
sis. In  other  instances,  the  morbific  cause  has  been  traced 
to  a  chemical  change  arising  from  an  imperfect  fermentation 
of  the  curd,  whereby  certain  new  products  of  an  irritant 
quality  are  generated.  These  are  believed  by  Hiinefeld  and 
Sertiirner  to  be  analogous  to,  if  not  identical  with,  caseic  and 
sebacic  acids.  In  the  process  of  fermentation  in  cheese- 
making,  there  is  a  gradual  conversion  of  the  casein  into  the 
caseate  of  ammonia,  which,  in  some  cheese,  is  always  united 
with  excess  of  alkali.  But  if  the  fermentation  has  been  too 
much  hastened,  or  allowed  to  go  too  far,  a  considerable  ex- 
cess of  caseic  acid  is  formed,  as  well  as  some  sebacic  acid. 
According  to  Braconnot,  the  caseic  acid  of  Proust  is  only 
a  modification  of  acetic  acid  and  an  acrid  oil.  It  is  certain 
that  such  an  oil  can  be  extracted  from  the  poisonous  cheese 
by  means  of  ether. 


356  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

According  to  Hiinefeld,  the  injurious  cheese  is  yellowish- 
red,  soft,  and  tough,  with  harder  and  darker  lumps  inter- 
spersed; it  has  a  disagreeable  taste,  reddens  litmus,  and 
becomes  flesh-red,  instead  of  lemon-yellow,  under  the  action 
of  nitric  acid.  The  instances  of  cheese-poisoning  are  much 
more  common  in  Germany  than  in  either  England  or  the 
United  States. 

The  symptoms,  as  they  appear  in  man,  are  very  similar  to 
those  caused  by  sausage-poisoning:  they  usually  come  on 
within  a  few  hours  after  the  cheese  is  eaten.  These  have 
sometimes  been  attributed,  erroneously,  to  the  accidental 
impregnation  of  the  milk  by  copper;  and  sometimes  they  have 
been  traced  to  noxious  vegetables  eaten  by  the  cows.  (See 
Christison  on  Poisons,  pp.  641-2.) 

SECTION  III. 

POISONOUS    FISH. — MUSSELS. 

Many  kinds  of  fish  prove  poisonous,  i.e.  they  excite  severe 
gastro-intestinal  symptoms,  resembling  cholera  morbus,  in 
certain  persons.  This  may  depend  either  on  idiosyncrasy  in 
the  patient,  or  on  some  peculiar,  undiscovered  organic  change 
that  has  taken  place  in  the  food  itself.  Sir  R.  Christison  con- 
siders "the  subject  of  fish-poisoning  to  be  one  of  the  most 
singular  in  the  whole  range  of  toxicology ;  and  none  is  at 
present  veiled  in  so  great  obscurity."  (On  Poisons,  p.  618.) 

Among  the  shell-fish  which  are  commonly  nutritive  but 
which  sometimes  acquire  poisonous  properties,  the  common 
mussel  is  the  most  conspicuous.  In  many  parts  of  Europe, 
this  shell-fish  is  used  considerably  as  a  common  article  of 
food ;  but  on  various  occasions,  without  the  possibility  of 
being  able  to  ascribe  it  to  any  definite  or  rational  cause,  it 
has  occasioned  the  most  violent  and  alarming  symptoms, 
which  have  not  unfrequently  resulted  in  death. 

The  effects  produced  by  eating  poisonous  mussels  are  not 
uniform.  Sometimes  they  are  those  of  a  simple  irritant, 
occasioning  nausea,  vomiting,  pain  in  the  stomach,  purging, 
cramps,  and  a  small,  quick  pulse.  The  fatal  cases  disclosed, 
on  post-mortem  examination,  evident  signs  of  inflammation. 


POISONING   BY   MUSSELS. — SYMPTOMS.  357 

In  other  instances  the  gastro-enteric  symptoms  have  been 
slight,  while  the  constitutional  disturbance  has  been  more 
marked,  the  most  conspicuous  symptoms  being  a  peculiar 
eruption  like  nettle-rash,  and  a  violent  asthma.  Other  cases, 
again,  have  been  attended  with  dyspnrea,  lividity  of  the  face, 
delirium,  insensibility  and  convulsive  movements  of  the  ex- 
tremities, and  coma.  As  a  rule,  the  symptoms  do  not  come 
on  until  about  twenty-four  hours ;  but  in  some  exceptional 
instances  they  have  made  their  appearance  within  a  few 
minutes.  Most  of  the  cases  appear  to  have  recovered  under 
the  use  of  emetics.  In  most  of  the  fatal  cases,  no  appearance 
was  discovered  after  death  to  account  for  the  result. 

The  following  cases  are  referred  to  by  Dr.  Taylor  (Med. 
Jurisp.,  1873,  vol.  i.  p.  339).  A  woman  picked  up  some  mussels 
which  she  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  basin  of  a  ship-canal. 
She  distributed  them  among  her  neighbors,  and  during  the 
night  twenty-one  persons  who  had  eaten  them  were  attacked 
with  symptoms  of  poisoning.  Three  children  died,  and  six 
persons  were  placed  in  imminent  peril ;  the  rest  were  soon  out 
of  danger.  In  October,  1862,  an  accident  occurred  at  Liver- 
pool, in  which  a  woman  died  in  about  four  hours  after  eating 
mussels  that  had  been  taken  from  a  ship  in  the  docks.  Severe 
pain  and  vomiting  were  among  the  symptoms,  which  gen- 
erally resembled  those  of  arsenic-poisoning.  Several  other 
persons  were  made  seriously  ill,  but  recovered. 

As  to  the  cause  of  the  noxious  properties  in  mussels,  vari- 
ous opinions  and  speculations  have  been  formed.  It  has 
been  vulgarly  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  copper,  which  has 
been  supposed  to  have  been  received  from  the  copper  sheath- 
ing on  the  bottoms  of  ships.  This  idea  is,  however,  unten- 
able, since  chemical  analysis  has  failed  to  detect  the  presence 
of  this  metal  in  the  majority  of  the  cases.  Another  theory 
refers  the  cause  to  putrefaction  ;  but  this  cannot  be  sustained, 
inasmuch  as  in  nearly  all  the  cases  reported  the  mussels 
were  perfectly  fresh.  Still  another  theory  ascribes  the  poi- 
sonous principle  to  some  disease  of  the  fish;  though  no  one 
has  yet  been  able  to  determine  what  this  disease  is.  Neither 
does  the  locality  where  the  mussel  has  been  found  throw 
any  light  upon  the  subject,  since  some  have  been  attached 


358  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

to  wooden  logs,  some  to  rocks,  and  some  to  the  stones  of  a 
dock.  Nevertheless,  according  to  Dr.  Combe's  description 
of  the  poisoning  at  Leith,  every  person  who-  ate  of  the  mus- 
sels taken  from  a  particular  spot  were  more  or  less  severely 
affected;  and  in  this  last  instance  certain  animals  suffered 
as  much  as  man,  a  cat  and  a  dog  having  been  killed  by  eat- 
ing the  mussels.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident 
that  the  poisonous  effects  must  be  due  to  some  peculiar  ani- 
mal principle,  either  generated,  or  developed  under  unknown 
conditions.  Other  shell-fish  besides  mussels  have  occasion- 
ally given  rise  to  similar  symptoms. 

SECTION  IV. 

POISONING   BY   PTTTRESCENT   FOOD. — UNSOUND   MEAT. 

The  effects  resulting  from  eating  meat  that  has  undergone 
putrefaction  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  caused  by 
a  diseased  condition  of  the  animal.  The  meat  of  the  most 
healthy  animal  after  it  has  become  putrescent  is  poisonous 
to  man.  It  not  only  produces,  in  common  with  the  flesh  of 
diseased  animals,  symptoms  of  irritant  poisoning,  but  also, 
in  addition,  those  of  a  typhoid  character,  or  septicaemia,  indi- 
cating a  true  blood-poisoning.  The  general  symptoms  arising 
from  partaking  of  such  food  strongly  resemble  those  of  some 
of  the  irritant  mineral  poisons,  and  might  readily  give  rise 
to  the  suspicion  of  such  poisoning.  There  are  vomiting  and 
purging,  giddiness,  heat  of  the  throat,  general  numbness, 
with  redness  of  the  eyes.  The  early  vomiting  that  is  excited 
usually  seems  to  expel  the  noxious  substance  from  the  sys- 
tem. In  the  matters  vomited,  the  presence  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  can  readily  be  detected.  The  tendency  of  putre- 
faction to  impart  deleterious  qualities  to  animal  matters 
originally  wholesome,  has  long  been  known.  To  those  not 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  tainted  meat,  the  very  commence- 
ment of  decay  is  enough  to  render  it  disgusting  to  the  taste, 
and  highly  irritating  to  the  stomach  and  bowels.  The  game 
that  has  been  kept  long  enough  to  delight  the  taste  of  the 
epicure,  has  produced  a  severe  cholera  in  persons  not  accus- 
tomed to  its  use. 


POISONING    BY   DECAYED    MEATS.  359 

Putrid  animal  matter,  when  injected  into  the  blood,  proves 
quickly  fatal,  after  causing  typhoid  symptoms.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  putrid  animal  matter  of  the  dissecting-room 
entering  the  blood  through  an  abrasion  of  the  skin,  causes 
the  most  alarming  symptoms,  which  often  terminate  fatally. 
There  is  extensive  local  inflammation  of  the  veins  and  ab- 
sorbents, together  with  diffusive  cellular  inflammation,  and 
great  constitutional  fever  of  a  low  character. 

Even  the  emanations  of  decaying  animal  matter  have  proved 
fatal  to  dogs  that  were  made  constantly  to  breathe  the  exha- 
lations; and  doubtless  similar  effects  would  be  produced  on 
man,  if  exposed  to  the  like  noxious  influences.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  certain  low  fevers,  very  similar  in  their  symp- 
toms and  general  history  to  typhoid  fever,  may  be  excited 
by  constantly  breathing  an  atmosphere  tainted  by  the  impure 
emanations  arising  from  decaying  animal  matters,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, from  privies.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  as  if  to  refute 
the  idea  of  the  emanations  from  putrefying  animal  matter 
being  unwholesome,  we  are  pointed  to  the  famous  establish- 
ment at  Montfaucon,  close  by  Paris,  where  the  contents  of 
the  city  privies  are  collected,  along  with  thousands  of  bodies 
of  horses,  dogs,  and  cats;  the  whole  decomposing  together, 
and  giving  rise  to  a  stench  perfectly  insupportable  to  the 
uninitiated;  and  yet  the  workmen  and  their  families  appear 
actually  to  thrive  upon  these  exhalations,  since  they  are  stout, 
healthy,  and  long-lived. 

Sir  R.  Christison  cites  an  instructive  instance  of  the  poi- 
sonous effects  resulting  from  eating  decayed  flesh.  Four 
adults  and  ten  children  partook  of  a  stew  made  from  meat 
taken  from  a  dead  calf  that  had  been  found  on  the  sea-shore. 
After  the  lapse  of  three  hours,  they  were  all  seized  with  pain 
in  the  stomach,  efforts  to  vomit,  purging,  and  lividity  of  the 
face,  succeeded  by  a  soporose  condition,  like  the  stupor  caused 
by  opium,  except  that  when  roused  the  patient  had  a  pecu- 
liar wild  expression.  One  person  died  comatose  in  six  hours ; 
the  rest  eventually  recovered,  after  free  purging  and  vomit- 
ing ;  but  they  required  the  most  powerful  stimulants  to 
counteract  the  exhaustion  and  collapse  which  followed  the 
stupor  (On  Poisons,  p.  647).  The  conjecture  is  thrown  out 


360  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

that,  in  consequence  of  the  animal  having  long  lain  in  the 
water,  an  adipocerous  degeneration  had  commenced,  and  that 
in  the  course  of  the  putrefaction  some  poisonous  principle, 
like  that  of  cheese  or  of  German  sausage,  had  been  devel- 
oped (ibid.). 

M.  Lassaigne  has  examined  chemically  the  putrid  matter 
formed  by  keeping  flesh  in  close  vessels,  and  has  found  it  to 
consist  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  much  caseate  of  ammonia, 
and  a  fetid  volatile  oil, — the  last  of  which  is  probably  the 
poisonous  ingredient  (ibid.). 

POISONED  MEAT. — The  cases  above  considered  are  alto- 
gether different  from  those  in  which  the  flesh  of  an  animal 
which  has  been  previously  poisoned  by  arsenic,  strychnia,  or 
some  other  substance,  has  been  the  cause  of  the  poisoning 
in  man.  Birds  may  thus  become  poisoned  by  feeding  on 
grain  that  has  been  steeped  in  a  solution  of  arsenic  previous 
to  sowing.  In  some  of  these  cases,  where  the  game  has 
been  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  it  may  be  a  question 
whether  the  poisoning  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  noxious  sub- 
stance fed  upon,  that  has  impregnated  the  flesh  of  the  animal, 
the  latter  being  in  a  perfectly  sound  condition,  or  to  the  re- 
sults of  a  putrefactive  change.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the 
body  of  an  animal  may  become  the  vehicle  or  medium  for 
conveying  a  poison  to  another,  which  has  proved  wholly  in- 
nocuous to  itself  (see  ante,  p.  86).  Frequent  cases  of  poison- 
ing have  occurred  in  this  country  from  eating  the  flesh  of  the 
common  pheasant  (Tetrao  umbellus)  during  the  winter  season. 
This  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  birds  having  eaten  the  leaves 
and  buds  of  the  laurel  (Kalmia):  these  have  been  found  in  the 
crops  of  the  birds.  But,  as  the  symptoms  are  almost  iden- 
tical with  those  caused  by  putresceut  food,  it  would  not, 
probably,  be  entirely  safe  to  insist  upon  the  former  reason. 


NARCOTICS. — POISONING   BY   OPIUM.  361 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

CLASS    II. 
NEUROTIC    POISONS. 

THIS  Class  embraces  the  second  general  division  of  poisons, 
viz.,  those  whose  effects  are  displayed  chiefly  on  the  great 
nerve-centres.  It  includes  the  narcotics  proper,  or  such  as  in- 
fluence the  brain  primarily;  the  spinants,  or  those  that  affect 
the  spinal  cord ;  and  the  cerebro-spinants,  or  those  whose  im- 
pression is  directed  to  both  these  nervous  centres.  The  most 
prominent  symptoms  are  drowsiness,  headache,  giddiness, 
stupor,  delirium,  convulsions  of  various  kinds,  and  paralysis. 
These  all  point  unmistakably  to  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow 
as  the  organs  affected.  This  class  of  poisons  produces 
little,  if  any,  local  irritant  impression  on  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  in  which  respect  they  differ  totally  from  those  already 
considered  under  the  first  class — the  Irritants.  The  morbid 
appearances  are  by  no  means  well  marked,  or  characteristic. 
A  fullness  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes, 
with,  rarely,  effusion  of  serum,  and  still  more  rarely  of  blood, 
is,  for  the  most  part,  all  that  can  be  distinguished;  and  as 
these  very  lesions  are  common  as  the  results  of  various  cere- 
bral diseases,  it  follows  that  it  is  impossible  to  diagnosticate 
the  case  as  one  of  neurotic  poisoning  by  these  lesions  exclu- 
sively. This  Class,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  of  reference, 
will  be  considered  under  several  Orders  and  Subdivisions. 

ORDER    L  — CEREBRAL    NEUROTICS. 
SECTION  I. 

HARCOTICS. 
POISONING   BY   OPIUM. — MORPHIA. 

Opium  and  its  preparations  constitute  the  most  frequent 
of  all  the  causes  of  poisoning,  both  in  this  country  and  Great 
Britain.  In  the  latter,  according  to  Dr.  Taylor,  three-fourths 
of  all  the  deaths  by  opium  take  place  among  children  under 


362  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

five  years  of  age.  This,  however,  forms  but  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  total  number  of  cases,  since  there  is  no  other  kind 
of  poisoning  wherein  recoveries  are  so  frequent. 

Opium  is  a  vegetable  extract,  the  inspissated  juice  of  the 
unripe  capsules  of  the  Papaver  somniferum,  or  white  poppy. 
Its  odor  is  strong  and  peculiar;  its  taste,  bitter  and  narcotic. 
It  imparts  its  virtues  to  water  and  alcohol.  It  has  a  very 
complex  composition,  which,  moreover,  differs  somewhat  in 
the  several  commercial  varieties.  Along  with  gum,  resin, 
coloring-matter,  and  inorganic  substances,  it  contains  .nu- 
merous crystallizable  organic  bodies,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  morphia,  narcotina,  codeia,  narceine,meconin  or  opianyl, 
and  a  peculiar  acid,  the  meconic.  Of  these,  the  most  im- 
portant and  interesting  in  a  medico-legal  point  of  view  are 
morphia  and  meconic  acid.  In  fact,  in  a  medico-legal  inquiry 
in  a  case  of  opium-poisoning,  it  is  to  the  detection  and  identi- 
fication of  these  two  substances  that  the  chemical  analysis  is 
directed. 

As  the  poisonous  properties  of  opium  depend  chiefly  on 
the  contained  morphia,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  amount 
of  this  alkaloid  varies  considerably  in  different  specimens  of 
the  drug, — from  two  per  cent,  (in  Bengal  opium)  to  six  or 
eight  per  cent,  (average  in  ordinary  Smyrna  opium).  In  the 
latter  variety  the  quantity  varies  from  three  per  cent,  to  over 
thirteen  per  cent.  This  variation  in  the  proportion  of  the 
active  principle  will  satisfactorily  account  for  the  discrepancy 
resulting  in  the  effects  produced  by  similar  doses  of  the  prep- 
arations of  opium.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  Lauda- 
num, which  is  the  ordinary  tincture  of  opium.  "When  this 
preparation  is  made  according  to  the  officinal  formula,  each 
fluidrachm  should  represent  about  five  grains  of  opium, — 
which  is  equivalent  to  one  grain  for  twenty-five  drops.  But 
the  strength  of  this  tincture  is,  of  course,  much  influenced  both 
by  the  quality  of  the  opium  and  by  the  strength  of  the  spirit 
used,  and  also  by  the  period  of  maceration ;  consequently, 
the  laudanum  of  the  shops  varies  greatly  in  its  strength. 

The  other  preparations  of  opium  in  common  use  as  medi- 
cines are  the  Camphorated  Tincture,  or  Paregoric  Elixir,  which 
contains  two  grains  of  opium  to  the  fluidounce;  Acetum  Opii, — 


POISONING   BY   OPIUM. — SYMPTOMS.  363 

made  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  Black  Drop,  which  is 
about  double  the  strength  of  laudanum  ;  Wine  of  Opium 
(Sydenham's  Laudanum),  which  is  about  the  strength  of  laud- 
anum ;  Battley's  Sedative  Solution,  which  is  of  unequal  strength, 
but  is  more  active  than  laudanum ;  Dover's  Powder,  which 
contains  one  grain  of  opium  in  every  ten  ;  Aromatic  Powder, 
which  contains  one  grain  of  opium  in  fort}7;  the  Compound 
Kino  Powder,  which  contains  one  grain  in  twenty ;  and  some 
others  of  less  importance.  The  Extract  may  be  regarded  as 
a  very  pure  form  of  opium  ;  it  contains  a  larger  proportion 
of  morphia :  three  grains  are  usually  considered  as  equiva- 
lent to  five  of  the  crude  drug.  The  medicinal  dose  of  opium 
is  from  one  to  three  grains. 

Symptoms. — These  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  dose.  If  opium  be  taken  in  a  full  but  not  poisonous 
dose,  there  is  at  first  a  period  of  general  excitement  of  the 
whole  system,  as  evidenced  by  an  increase  of  the  force  and 
frequency  of  the  circulation,  a  warm  skin,  flushed  face,  and 
brilliancy  of  the  eye;  also  increased  activity  of  the  brain,  as 
denoted  by  a  more  vivid  imagination  and  greater  loquacity. 
This  soon  gives  place  to  a  period  of  calm  repose ;  which  in 
its  turn  is  succeeded  by  the  soporific  stage,  the  patient  falling 
into  a  profound  sleep,  which  lasts  for  several  hours,  during 
which  there  is  general  relaxation  of  the  system.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  amount  of  opium  is  increased,  the  first  period  of 
excitement  or  exhilaration  is  diminished;  so  that  when  the 
dose  is  sufficiently  large  to  produce  death,  this  first  stage 
may  not  be  perceived  at  all,  but  the  more  characteristic 
soporific  effects  will  manifest  themselves  very  early.  In  such 
a  case,  there  will  be  dizziness,  drowsiness,  rapidly  passing 
into  deep  sleep  or  stupor,  from  which  there  is  difficulty  in 
arousing  the  patient:  this  stupor  gradually  passes  into  com- 
plete insensibility.  The  profound  stupor  not  preceded  by 
delirium  is  characteristic  of  opium-poisoning.  When  under 
its  full  influence,  the  patient  lies  in  a  deep  lethargy  ;  the  eyes 
are  closed;  the  pupils  most  generally  contracted,  and  insen- 
sible to  light;  the  pulse  full  and  slow;  respiration  slow  and 
stertorous;  the  skin  warm;  and  the  face  rather  flushed.  As 
the  case  advances,  the  countenance  becomes  pale  and  ghastly; 


364  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

the  lips  livid;  the  skin  cold  and  clammy;  the  respiration 
very  slow, — sometimes,  as  we  have  noticed,  amounting  to 
only  five  or  six  in  a  minute ;  the  muscles  are  relaxed ;  the 
lower  jaw  drops  ;  the  pulse  becomes  feeble,  and  scarcely  per- 
ceptible ;  the  sphincters  relax,  and  sometimes  convulsions 
occur  just  before  death  ;  these,  however,  are  more  common 
in  children  than  in  adults.  Sometimes  there  is  vomiting, 
and  even  purging;  and  if  free  vomiting  takes  place  early, 
there  is  a  good  hope  of  recovery.  This  symptom  is  generally 
observed  when  a  very  large  dose  has  been  taken.  In  some 
cases  during  the  comatose  state  the  skin,  though  cool,  is 
bathed  in  a  profuse  perspiration.  If  recovery  occurs,  there 
are  nausea  and  vomiting,  with  more  or  less  headache,  to- 
gether with  a  general  itching  of  the  skin. 

Opium  has  the  property  of  diminishing  all  the  secretions, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  skin,  which  it  tends  to 
increase  :  hence  the  copious  perspiration  generally  observed 
in  cases  of  poisoning  by  this  drug. 

There  are  occasional  variations  in  the  symptoms  which 
deserve  attention.  The  pupils  are  sometimes  dilated  instead 
of  being  contracted :  this  is  more  apt  to  occur  in  the  advanced 
stage  of  the  case.  Occasionally  one  pupil  may  be  contracted 
and  the  other  dilated.  Dr.  Taylor  alludes  to  a  case  of  this 
kind  (On  Poisons,  p.  520).  The  reflex  function  is  active  and 
easily  excited,  although  the  general  insensibility  is  complete. 
The  pulse  is  sometimes  quite  natural;  but  towards  the  fatal 
termination  it  becomes  small,  frequent,  and  irregular;  severe 
tetanic  spasms,  with  difficulty  of  swallowing,  and  partial  opis- 
thotouos — symptoms  strongly  resembling  those  of  strych- 
nia— have  been  noticed  in  a  case  of  poisoning  by  acetate  of 
morphia  (Med.  Times  and  Gaz.,  March  7,  1857).  In  some 
instances  there  has  been  a  remarkable  absence  of  all  narcotic 
symptoms,  with  sudden  death ;  and  in  others,  a  long  post- 
ponement of  the  symptoms,  together  with  a  partial  recovery 
and  a  fatal  relapse. 

The  contracted  state  of  the  pupils,  which  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  diagnostic  sign  of  opium-poisoning,  may  like- 
wise unquestionably  result  from  disease.  Mr.  Wilks  alludes 
to  the  fact  that  in  apoplexy  which  is  seated  in  the  pous 


POISONING    BY    OPIUM. — FATAL    PERIOD.  365 

Varolii  the  pupils  are  also  contracted.  He  describes  two 
cases  of  this  form  of  apoplexy  which  were  mistaken  for 
poisoning  by  opium  in  consequence  of  this  condition  of  the 
pupils  (Med.  Times  and  Gaz.,  1863,  i.  p.  214). 

First  appearance  of  symptoms. — This  depends,  in  some  de- 
gree, on  the  condition  of  the  stomach  at  the  time,  whether 
full  or  empty,  and  also  on  the  amount  and  the  form  of  the 
narcotic  as  swallowed,  whether  liquid  or  solid.  When  in 
large  quantity,  and  in  the  fluid  state,  the  poison  may  begin 
to  act  in  a  few  minutes,  and  coma  may  be  fully  established 
in  half  an  hour.  As  a  general  rule,  the  symptoms  usually 
commence  in  an  adult  within  an  hour  after  swallowing  the 
poison ;  but  there  is  considerable  variety  in  this  respect. 
Thus,  in  a  case  quoted  by  Dr.  Taylor,  the  patient  was  found 
totally  insensible  in  fifteen  minutes.  "We  have  more  than  once 
witnessed  profound  sleep  produced  within  five  minutes,  in 
a  patient  suffering  from  violent  pain,  from  the  hypodermic 
injection  of  a  quarter  of  a  grain  of  morphia.  Christison 
refers  to  several  cases  in  which  the  symptoms  were  mani- 
fested within  the  above  time;  and  to  one  in  which  the  sopor 
was  fairly  established  in  fifteen  minutes  after  swallowing 
two  drachms  of  solid  opium ;  although  in  another  remark- 
able case,  where  eight  ounces  of  solid  opium  were  taken,  an 
interval  of  an  hour  elapsed  before  any  symptoms  were  ob- 
served (On  Poisons,  p.  706).  On  the  other  hand,  the  same 
author  alludes  to  an  extraordinary  case  communicated  to 
him,  of  a  man  swallowing  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  laudanum, 
and  in  an  hour  and  a  half  as  much  more.  Though  some 
excitement  and  a  slight  numbness  followed,  he  appeared  so 
natural  for  seven  hours  that  at  that  period  his  story  was  not 
credited  by  the  medical  man  to  whom  he  related  it.  Stupor 
did  not  set  in  until  the  eighteenth  hour;  and  two  hours  later 
he  was  completely  narcotized.  After  seven  hours'  assiduous 
treatment  he  was  aroused,  and  eventually  recovered.  There 
seems  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  state  of  alcoholic 
intoxication  tends  to  postpone  the  time  for  the  development 
of  the  usual  symptoms.  Many  other  cases  have  been  reported 
in  which  this  interval  amounted  to  from  five  to  ten  hours. 

Fatal  period. — According  to  numerous  observations,  the 

24 


366  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ordinary  duration  of  fatal  poisoning  by  opium  is  from  seven 
to  twelve  hours;  although  many  exceptions  occur  in  both 
extremes.  Dr.  Lyman  reports  a  case  in  which  an  ounce  of 
laudanum  taken  by  a  female,  aged  fifty-two  years,  produced 
violent  symptoms  in  thirty-five  minutes,  and  death  in  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1854).  Dr. 
Coale,  in  the  same  journal,  reports  a  case  in  which  death 
took  place  within  the  same  period.  When  a  patient  sur- 
vives twelve  hours,  there  is  usually  good  hope  for  recovery. 

On  the  other  hand,  instances  are  recorded  in  which  death 
was  delayed  much  beyond  the  usual  period, — as  late  as 
twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 

Fatal  dose. — This  cannot  be  stated  with  accuracy.  An 
ounce  of  laudanum  (equivalent  to  about  forty  grains  of 
opium)  has  frequently  proved  fatal.  Dr.  Wormley  mentions 
the  case  of  a  robust,  healthy  girl,  aged  seventeen  years,  who 
died  in  seven  hours  after  swallowing  two  fluidrachms  of 
laudanum  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  460).  Dr.  Toogood 
mentions  a  case  in  which  twelve  drops  of  Baltley's  Sedative — 
which  is  believed  to  be  two  or  three  times  as  strong  as 
common  laudanum — caused  death  in  a  feeble  woman,  aged 
fifty-five  years,  on  the  day  after  it  was  taken  (Prov.  Med. 
and  Surg.  Jour.,  Nov.,  1841).  Sir  R.  Christison  quotes  a 
case  where  four  and  a  half  grains  mixed  with  nine  grains  of 
camphor  caused  death  in  an  adult  in  nine  hours;  and  Dr. 
Taylor  alludes  to  two  cases,  one  of  which  proved  fatal  from 
a  dose  of  ten  grains,  and  the  other,  from  eight  grains. 

From  all  that  can  be  learned  from  experience,  and  from 
recorded  cases,  four  or  jive  grains  may  be  regarded  as  the 
minimum  fatal  dose  for  an  adult. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  young  children  are  ex- 
tremely susceptible  to  the  narcotic  impression  of  opium. 
Many  instances  might  be  cited  where  death  has  ensued  to 
very  young  infants  from  a  dose  of  one  or  two  drops  of  laud- 
anum. It  should  be  remembered,  in  this  connection,  that 
old  samples  of  laudanum,  kept  in  bottles  which  are  frequently 
opened,  are  considerably  stronger  than  that  which  is  freshly 
prepared,  in  consequence  of  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit. 
Hence  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  single  drop  of  laudanum 


POISONING    BY   OPIUM. — FATAL   DOSE.  367 

taken  from  the  dregs  of  a  bottle  might  possess  the  strength 
of  two  or  three  drops  of  the  ordinary  preparation.  Severe 
symptoms,  and  even  death,  have  followed  the  taking  of  a 
single  grain  of  Dover's  powder  by  a  very  young  infant. 
Trousseau  states  that  he  has  seen  narcotic  effects  in  children 
from  a  dose  of  the  wine  of  opium  equivalent  to  less  than 
the  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  this  drug.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  child  may  be  narcotized  by  the  milk  of  a  nurse  who 
has  taken  opium.  Bouchardat  relates  that  nine  new-born 
children  were  narcotized  by  the  decoction  of  a  single  poppy- 
head.  For  further  cases  under  this  head,  see  Taylor  "  On 
Poisons,"  p.  533.  This  extreme  susceptibility  on  the  part 
of  children  to  the  action  of  opium  should  suggest  caution 
in  its  administration  to  this  class  of  patients. 

On  the  other  hand,  recoveries  are  constantly  taking  place 
from  very  large  poisonous  doses  of  opium.  Dr.  Jackson  re- 
ports the  case  of  a  woman  who  swallowed  ninety  grains  of  solid 
opium,  and  who,  when  seen  by  a  physician  three  hours  after- 
wards, was  laboring  under  all  the  symptoms  of  opium-poison- 
ing. Yet  she  recovered,  under  active  treatment.  (Am.  Jour. 
Med.  Sci.,  1854,  p.  385.)  Dr.  Wormley  records  the  following 
remarkable  case  taken  from  the  "American  Medical  Record," 
vol.  xiii.  p.  418.  A  pregnant  woman,  aged  thirty-two  years, 
took,  suicidally,  between  seven  and  eight  ounces  of  solid  opium. 
"When  seen  by  a  physician  about  an  hour  afterwards,  she 
was  able  to  give  a  connected  account  of  the  case.  Prompt 
and  repeated  vomiting  brought  away  large  quantities  of  the 
solid  drug.  She  fell  into  a  deep  sleep;  but  after  a  time 
reaction  took  place,  and  symptoms  of  phreuitis  manifested 
themselves :  finally,  however,  she  recovered. 

The  following  cases  are  taken  from  "Wharton  and  Stille's 
"  Medical  Jurisprudence,"  1873,  vol.  ii.  p.  543.  A  gentleman 
aged  seventy-two  years  recovered  from  the  effects  of  twelve 
drachms  of  laudanum.  Another  recovered  after  taking  up- 
wards of  an  ounce.  An  infant  of  twelve  months  recovered 
from  the  effects  of  seventy-two  drops;  another,  six  days 
old,  after  taking  two  grains  of  opium;  and  a  child  nearly 
six  years  old,  from  a  dose  of  seven  and  a  half  grains. 

The  deleterious  effects  arising  from  the  constant  and  ig- 


368  MANUAL   OF  TOX.COLOQY. 

norant  use  of  the  different  nostrums  everj-where  sold  as 
"  soothing"  potions  for  infants  are  but  too  well  known.  It  is 
very  certain  that  many  infants  annually  perish  from  this  single 
cause.  We  have  witnessed  an  instance  in  which  a  drachm 
of  "  "VVinslow's  Soothing  Syrup"  came  very  near  proving  fatal 
in  an  infant  a  few  weeks  old.  Profound  narcotism,  with  ex- 
tremely contracted  pupils,  resulted;  but  the  child  recovered 
under  the  cautious  use  of  the  tincture  of  belladonna. 

External  application. — Opium  applied  to  the  skin,  and  es- 
pecially to  an  abraded  surface,  or  used  as  an  injection,  or  in- 
troduced into  the  nostril  or  the  ear,  may  produce  dangerous, 
or  even  fatal,  results.  M.  Touruon,  of  Bordeaux,  relates  a 
case  in  which  death  was  attributed  to  four  grains  of  opium 
introduced  into  the  ear  (Guy's  Foren.  Med.,  p.  505).  Well- 
authenticated  cases  are  reported  where  the  application  of 
laudanum  to  the  sound  skin  has  been  followed  by  fatal 
coma.  It  is  especially  dangerous  in  the  case  of  infants.  Sir 
R.  Christisou  relates  two  instances  where  the  external  appli- 
cation of  laudanum  proved  fatal  to  adults.  In  these  cases 
a  poultice  saturated  with  laudanum  was  applied  over  the 
abdomen  to  relieve  pain  :  fatal  narcotism  followed,  death 
taking  place  after  some  hours.  In  one  of  these  cases,  a 
strong  odor  of  opium  was  exhaled  from  different  parts  of 
the  body,  on  post-mortem  examination,  showing  how  com- 
pletely the  poison  had  been  absorbed. 

The  very  decided  and  even  fatal  effects  of  opiate  enemata 
and  suppositories  are  familiar  to  physicians.  The  introduc- 
tion of  morphia  hypoderrnically,  now  so  much  and  so  advan- 
tageously employed  in  medicine,  is  sometimes  attended  with 
serious,  and  even  fatal,  results. 

The  influence  of  idiosyncrasy  and  habit  is  particularly  observ- 
able in  the  case  of  opium,  and  is  of  sufficient  medico-legal 
importance  to  admit  of  a  brief  notice  here.  Christison  men- 
tions an  instance  of  a  gentleman  who  was  always  narcotized 
by  only  seven  drops  of  laudanum ;  and  Taylor  observed 
alarming  symptoms  from  the  injection  of  only  one  grain  of 
opium.  Grisolle  states  that  he  saw  narcotism  induced  in  a 
lady  by  half  a  grain.  Every  physician  can  recall  cases  where 
patients  have  been  unable  to  take  even  the  smallest  quantity 


POISONING   BY   OPIUM. — MORBID    APPEARANCES.  369 

of  this  drug,  owing  to  some  peculiarity  of  constitution. 
Sometimes,  though  more  rarely,  there  is  a  remarkable 
natural  tolerance  of  opium,  which  cannot  be  ascribed  to 
habit.  It  is  more  usual,  however,  to  meet  with  cases  like 
the  above  in  the  course  of  certain  diseases.  In  aged  persons 
affected  with  catarrh,  an  ordinary  dose  of  opium  may  occasion 
alarming  and  even  fatal  consequences.  Several  instances  of 
this  character  are  given  by  Christison;  and  they  should  be 
remembered  by  the  legal  physician,  since  similar  ones  might 
be  brought  forward  as  instances  of  intentional  poisoning.  On 
the  other  hand,  severe  nervous  diseases,  such  as  tetanus  and 
mania-a-potu,  will  tolerate  enormous  doses  of  opium. 

Every  person  is  aware  of  the  effects  of  habit  in  modifying 
the  tolerance  of  opium.  Thirty,  fifty,  and  even  a  hundred 
grains  a  day  are  taken  by  some  opium-eaters.  De  Quincey, 
the  English  opium-eater,  brought  himself  to  drink  nine  ounces 
of  laudanum,  equivalent  to  three  hundred  and  thirty-three 
grains  of  solid  opium,  a  day !  (See  "  Confessions  of  an  Opium- 
Eater.") 

Morbid  appearances. — The  only  post-mortem  indications 
of  opium-poisoning  are  fullness  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain 
and  of  its  sinuses.  Occasionally  there  has  been  found  an 
extravasation  of  serum  in  the  ventricles  and  between  the 
membranes;  but  very  rarely  of  blood.  Sometimes  there  is 
engorgement  of  the  lungs,  and  of  other  vascular  organs, 
more  especially  if  death  has  been  preceded  by  convulsions. 
The  stomach  is  often  perfectly  natural  in  appearance ;  though 
at  times  it  is  somewhat  reddened.  But  this  might  easily  be 
ascribed  to  accidental  causes.  The  blood  is  apt  to  be  fluid. 
From  this  description  it  will  be  perceived  that  there  is  abso- 
lutely nothing  in  the  morbid  appearances  that  can  with  cer- 
tainty indicate  poisoning  by  opium.  Sometimes  the  above 
signs  are  altogether  absent ;  and  again,  when  they  are  present, 
they  are  equally  ascribable  to  disease.  In  some  cases  there 
is  a  strong  odor  of  opium  perceived  on  opening  the  stomach, 
if  the  poison  has  been  swallowed  in  the  solid  or  liquid  state, 
and  has  not  previously  been  evacuated  by  emesis.  The  sur- 
face of  the  body  is  usually  livid ;  and  the  animal  heat  is  said 
to  persist  for  a  long  time,  even  after  cadaveric  rigidity  has 


370  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

set  in.  All  authorities  unite  in  the  opinion  that  it  is  altogether 
impossible  to  draw  any  positive  conclusion  as  to  opium-poi- 
soning from  the  post-mortem  appearances  alone. 

Treatment. — The  first  effort  should  be  to  remove  the  poison 
from  the  stomach.  This  can  usually  be  accomplished  by 
emetics,  the  most  appropriate  of  which  is  sulphate  of  zinc. 
The  dose  of  this  should  be  at  least  double  the  ordinary 
quantity,  in  consequence  of  the  torpor  of  the  stomach.  In 
the  absence  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  mustard  and  warm  water 
may  be  advantageously  employed.  The  emetic  should  be 
repeated,  if  the  first  dose  fails  to  act.  If  emesis  cannot 
be  effected,  the  stomach-pump  should  be  used,  the  stomach 
being  thoroughly  washed  out  with  warm  water.  The  next 
point  is  to  overcome  the  constantly-increasing  lethargy.  For 
this  purpose  cold  water  should  be  dashed  upon  the  face  and 
chest ;  and  when  somewhat  aroused,  the  patient  should  be 
kept  walking  about  between  two  attendants,  the  tendency 
to  relapse  into  stupor  being  counteracted  by  shaking  him 
and  shouting  to  him.  When  sufficiently  aroused,  he  should 
be  made  to  swallow  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  without  sugar 
and  cream.  If  these  means  do  not  succeed,  electro-magnet- 
ism should  be  at  once  employed,  the  current  being  sent  be- 
tween the  upper  part  of  the  spine  and  the  chest.  This  latter 
means  is  usually  very  efficacious.  In  desperate  cases,  artifi- 
cial respiration  should  be  resorted  to. 

No  chemical  antidote  can  be  relied  upon,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  above-mentioned  means.  Tannic  acid,  and  the 
iodated  iodide  of  potassium,  form  insoluble  precipitates  with 
morphia,  and  have  hence  been  recommended  as  antidotes. 
Belladonna,  or  its  alkaloid  atropia,  is  now  generally  regarded 
as  a  true  physiological  antidote  to  opium.  Cases  are  every 
year  accumulating  to  testify  to  its  value  and  reliability  ;  and, 
conversely,  opium,  or  its  alkaloid  morphia,  is  the  antidote  to 
belladonna. 

The  experiments  of  Dr.  John  Ilarley  seem  to  prove  the 
reverse  of  the  above  statement,  in  regard  to  the  lower 
animals,  and  that  their  combination  rather  increases  the 
effect.  Some  experiments  of  our  own  on  dogs,  made  a 
few  years  since,  also  go  to  show  that  there  is  no  real  an- 


POISONING   BY   OPIUM. — MORPHIA.  371 

tagonism  between  morphia  and  atropia  in  these  animals. 
Nevertheless,  judging  from  our  own  experience,  as  well  as 
from  the  accumulated  testimony  of  others,  in  reference  to 
the  human  subject,  we  cannot  withhold  our  conviction  that 
they  are  antidotal  to  each  other  in  man.  (See  papers  by  the 
author  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  April  and  July,  1871.) 
In  a  case  of  opium-poisoning,  the  tincture  of  belladonna,  or 
an  equivalent  solution  of  atropia,  should  be  carefully  admin- 
istered in  successive  doses,  until  the  pupils  begin  to  dilate 
and  the  breathing  becomes  increased  in  frequency.  Should 
the  patient  be  unable  to  swallow,  the  atropia  may  be  admin- 
istered hypodermically.  Out  of  nine  cases  of  opium-poison- 
ing treated  by  belladonna,  and  eighteen  of  belladonna-poi- 
soning treated  by  opium,  collected  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Norris,  of 
Philadelphia,  only  two  of  the  former,  and  one  of  the  latter, 
proved  fatal.  (Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1862,  p.  395.) 

MORPHIA. — Morphia,  when  pure,  occurs  in  colorless,  rhom- 
bic prismatic  crystals ;  taste,  very  bitter.  It  is  very  slightly 
soluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol,  especially  when  hot; 
slightly  soluble  in  commercial  ether;  and  nearly  insoluble  in 
chloroform.  When  ether  is  agitated  with  morphia  immediately 
after  the  alkaloid  is  liberated  from  one  of  its  salts  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  alkali,  it  will  dissolve  a  much  larger  proportion. 
Amylic  alcohol  is  a  rather  better  solvent  for  it  than  common 
alcohol.  Common  acetic  ether  is  the  best  solvent;  one  part  of 
the  ether,  according  to  Wormley,  dissolving  seventy-five  parts 
of  morphia.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  the  fixed  alkalies;  less  so  in 
ammonia.  When  heated  on  platinum,  the  crystals  fuse  to  a 
brownish  liquid,  burn  like  resin,  evolving  white  fumes,  and 
leaving  a  carbonaceous  mass.  Heated  on  a  porcelain  slab,  it 
yields  a  crystalline  sublimate  of  peculiar  form.  Its  solution, 
in  common  with  the  other  alkaloids,  is  precipitated  by  tannic 
acid.  The  salts  of  morphia  are  freely  soluble  in  water  and  in 
diluted  alcohol ;  but  they  are  insoluble  in  ether,  chloroform, 
amylic  alcohol,  and  pure  acetic  ether. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  morphia  in  the  main  resemble 
those  of  opium.  As  a  rule,  they  manifest  themselves  rather 
earlier  than  in  the  case  of  the  crude  drug.  Some  have  supposed 


372  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

that  the  convulsive  effects  occasionally  witnessed  after 
taking  a  poisonous  dose  of  opium  are  especially  due  to 
morphia.  A  number  of  cases  have  been  reported  in  which 
morphia,  when  given  in  poisonous  doses,  has  occasioned  de- 
cided convulsions.  In  the  celebrated  case  of  Dr.  Castaing, 
a  pupil  of  Orfila,  who  was  tried  and  executed  in  Paris  in 
1823  for  poisoning  Auguste  Ballet  with  morphia,  the  accused 
was  proved  to  have  recently  purchased  twelve  grains  of  tartar 
emetic  and  twenty-six  of  acetate  of  morphia.  The  deceased 
had,  in  addition  to  vomiting  and  purging,  convulsions,  locked 
jaw,  rigid  spasms  of  the  neck  and  abdomen,  inability  to  swal- 
low, and  loss  of  sensibility  in  the  legs.  The  prisoner  was 
believed  to  have  administered  the  morphia  to  his  victim  first, 
and  afterwards  the  tartar  emetic  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
all  traces  of  the  former  from  the  stomach.  The  suspected 
poison  could  not  be  detected  by  analysis  after  death. 

An  anomalous  case  of  poisoning  by  morphia,  in  which  the 
symptoms  might  have  raised  the  suspicion  of  strychnia,  al- 
though there  were  obvious  points  of  difference,  is  reported 
by  Dr.  Ferris  in  the  "British  Medical  Journal,"  November 
11,  1871.  A  woman  aged  sixty  years  took  twenty-five  drops 
of  a  solution  of  morphia  for  a  bad  cough  and  diarrhoea. 
The  strength  of  the  solution  is  not  given ;  though  it  is 
stated  that  it  was  poured  from  the  shop-bottle  of  a  drug- 
gist, labeled  "ten  to  sixty  drops  for  a  dose."  Two  hours 
after,  she  was  found  bathed  in  perspiration,  face  swollen 
and  eyeballs  protruding.  Both  sides  of  her  mouth  were 
twitching;  the  arms  were  bent  and  moved  backwards  and 
forwards  convulsively.  In  a  moment  the  convulsions  ceased, 
and  she  complained  of  great  pain  in  the  chest  and  was 
unable  to  take  a  long  breath.  After  a  time  the  convulsions 
returned,  and  there  was  great  pain  in  the  back,  and  partial 
opisthotonos.  When  seen  by  the  physician,  four  hours  after 
taking  the  morphia,  she  complained  of  great  pain  in  the  chest 
and  bowels;  the  breathing  was  short  and  quick;  there  was 
twitching  in  the  legs  and  down  the  spine,  together  with 
pain  in  this  region.  The  pupils  were  extremely  contracted. 
There  never  was  any  disposition  to  sleep.  There  was  an 
entire  absence  of  trismus.  The  convulsive  movements  re- 


POISONING    BY    MORPHIA. — FATAL   DOSE.  373 

curred  several  times  after  a  complete  cessation.  The  patient 
gradually  recovered;  her  last  symptoms  being  slight  sick- 
ness, pain  in  the  head,  and  contracted  pupils. 

The  salts  of  morphia  most  used  are  the  sulphate  in  this 
country,  and  the  hydrochlorate  and  acetate  in  Great  Britain. 
These  are  usually  estimated  to  have  about  six  times  the 
strength  of  opium. 

Fatal  dose. — Dr.  Taylor  (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp., 
1873,  vol.  ii.  p.  358)  mentions  four  recorded  cases  in  which 
one  grain  of  hydrochlorate  of  morphia  proved  fatal  to  adults: 
in  one,  in  solution;  in  the  second,  in  pill;  in  the  third,  in 
powder;  in  the  fourth,  by  hypodermic  injection.  In  the 
first  of  these  cases,  the  morphia  was  taken  in  divided  doses 
in  six  hours :  the  patient  died  in  about  seven  hours.  The 
second  case  died  in  thirteen  hours,  the  symptoms  coming 
on  in  three  hours  :  no  morphia  was  discovered  in  the  stomach 
after  death.  In  the  third  case,  death  ensued  in  ten  hours, 
the  symptoms  appearing  in  about  three  hours.  In  the  fourth 
instance,  one  grain  of  morphia  was  administered  hypodermic- 
ally  in  three  divided  doses,  all  within  ten  hours.  The  man 
slept  quietly  for  two  hours ;  he  then  took  dinner,  and  en- 
gaged in  conversation ;  but  in  another  hour  he  suddenly 
became  insensible,  and  died  two  hours  after,  in  profound 
narcotism.  We  have  known  the  case  of  a  gentleman  in 
whom  about  three-quarters  of  a  grain  taken  hypodermically 
proved  fatal  within  twenty-four  hours. 

On  the  other  hand,  enormous  doses  of  this  alkaloid  have 
been  swallowed  without  fatal  consequences,  and  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  effect  of  habit.  One  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble cases  yet  reported  is  related  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Norris  (Amer. 
Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  October,  1862,  p.  395).  A  druggist  aged 
nineteen  years,  for  the  purpose  of  self-destruction,  swallowed 
seventy-jive  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia.  No  marked  symp- 
toms appeared  for  an  hour  and  a  half  afterwards,  when  he 
began  to  feel  sleepy,  and  had  a  staggering  gait.  Soon  after 
this,  emetics  were  given,  causing  free  emesis.  He  then  became 
unconscious;  the  pupils  contracted  to  a  point;  the  pulse  was 
soft  and  frequent ;  respiration  slow  and  labored ;  but  under 
the  active  use  of  remedies,  including  extract  of  belladonna, 


374  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

galvanism,  and  the  cold  douche,  he  was  quite  well  on  the 
second  day  after  the  occurrence. 

The  external  application  of  morphia  to  abraded  surfaces, 
as  also  in  the  form  of  enema,  has  sometimes  been  attended 
with  fatal  effect.  One  grain  sprinkled  over  a  blistered  sur- 
face on  the  back  of  an  aged  lady  produced,  in  about  two 
hours,  the  most  alarming  symptoms,  from  which  she  barely 
recovered.  Much  smaller  doses  than  this  have  occasioned 
very  serious  symptoms.  Dr.  Austie  met  with  a  case  in  which 
three  grains  given  by  enema  caused  death  in  sixteen  hours. 

There  are  no  characteristic  post-mortem  appearances  to  indi- 
cate death  from  morphia.  There  may  be,  as  in  the  case  of 
opium,  fullness  of  the  cerebral  vessels,  with  serous  effusion, 
and  bloody  points  on  section  of  the  brain-substance.  It  pro- 
duces no  local  irritant  action  on  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

Chemical  analysis  of  opium. — As  opium  is  a  very  complex 
substance,  there  are  no  chemical  tests  for  it  as  such:  it  can 
be  identified  by  its  physical  properties  of  odor  and  taste,  and 
by  its  action  on  living  animals.  As  the  peculiar  odor  de- 
pends on  a  volatile  principle,  it  may  soon  disappear  after 
exposure  of  the  material  to  the  air,  or  on  heating  it.  Again,  it 
may  be  concealed  by  other  odors,  or  it  may  be  destroyed  in 
consequence  of  some  organic  change  undergone  by  the  mate- 
rial in  the  stomach  before  death.  The  only  means  of  identi- 
fying the  opium  in  a  case  of  suspected  poisoning,  is  to  detect 
its  contained  meconate  of  morphia,  and  especially  its  meconic 
acid.  The  identification  of  this  latter  ingredient  is  absolute 
proof  of  the  presence  of  opium  or  of  some  of  its  preparations, 
since  it  is  found  exclusively  in  opium.  In  poisoning  by 
morphia  or  its  ordinary  salts  (except  the  mecouate),  the  me- 
conic acid  is,  of  course,  always  absent. 

Detection  of  morphia. — The  chemical  tests  are  best  applied 
to  the  morphia  in  the  solid  state.  (1)  Concentrated  nitric 
acid  dropped  upon  a  fragment  produces  a  rich  orange-red 
color,  and  dissolves  it  with  effervescence,  and  the  production 
of  ruddy  fumes  of  nitrous  acid.  The  orange-red  solution 
slowly  fades  to  a  yellow.  If  the  morphia  be  in  solution,  the 
acid  should  be  in  large  excess :  in  this  case  the  color  is  lighter 
than  when  the  morphia  is  in  the  solid  state.  Nitric  acid  also 


POISONING   BY    MORPHIA. — TESTS.  375 

strikes  a  red  color  with  brucia,  which,  on  the  addition  of  pro- 
tochloride  of  tin,  changes  to  a  bright  purple;  whereas  no 
change  is  produced  in  the  case  of  morphia.  (2)  Strong 
sulphuric  acid  slowly  dissolves  it  without  change  of  color: 
if  now  a  crystal  of  bichromate  of  potassa  be  stirred  in  the 
solution,  it  slowly  acquires  a  green  color,  from  the  production 
of  the  oxide  of  chrome.  If  heat  be  applied  to  the  original 
sulphuric  acid  solution,  it  assumes  a  brown  color.  Prof.  Otto 
says  that  a  very  minute  quantity  may  be  detected  by  first 
dissolving  it  in  a  drop  or  two  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
by  the  aid  of  heat;  after  cooling,  dilute  with  a  little  water, 
and  add  a  crystal  of  chromate  of  potassa ;  the  liquid  acquires 
an  intensely  mahogany-brown  color.  (3)  A  drop  of  a  solu- 
tion of  a  salt  of  morphia  (as  the  acetate),  exposed  for  a  few 
moments  to  the  vapors  of  ammonia,  will  deposit  the  alkaloid 
in  the  form  of  prismatic  or  hexagonal  crystals,  easily  distin- 
guished under  the  microscope.  (4)  Neutral  sesquichloride 
or  persulphate  of  iron  dropped  on  a  crystal  of  morphia  ren- 
ders it  deep  blue, — turning  to  green,  if  added  in  excess. 
For  the  success  of  this  experiment  it  is  indispensable  that 
no  free  acid  be  present.  Tardieu  (Sur  1'Empoisonnement, 
p.  879)  gives  the  following  formula  for  properly  preparing 
the  solution  of  persulphate  of  iron.  Introduce  into  a  small 
receiver  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  and 
one  and  a  half  parts  of  distilled  water,  saturated  by  an  excess 
of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  at  the  temperature  of  a  water-bath. 
When  the  liquid  has  become  saturated  with  the  oxide,  it  is 
filtered,  and  the  clear  filtrate  is  properly  preserved.  An  ex- 
cess of  acid,  a  degree  of  heat  above  122°  F.,  and  the  presence 
of  organic  matter  will  prevent  the  production  of  the  blue 
color.  (5)  lodie  acid. — Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  this  acid 
in  a  drop  of  cold,  freshly-made  starch,  place  it  on  a  white 
slab,  and  add  the  fragment  of  "morphia.  Iodine  is  liberated, 
and  immediately  imparts  the  characteristic  blue  color  to  the 
starch.  M.  Dupre  advises  that  the  morphia  or  its  solution 
be  first  treated  with  a  drop  of  the  starch-solution  ;  the  mix- 
ture is  then  carefully  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue, 
after  cooling,  moistened  with  a  solution  of  iodic  acid.  In 
this  manner  a  residue  containing  only  one  ten-thousandth 


376  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

of  a  grain  of  the  alkaloid  will  yield  a  distinct  blue  color 
(Wormley).  (6)  Put  a  small  fragment  on  a  porcelain  slab, 
with  a  glass  disk  properly  supported  over  it,  and  apply  a  heat 
of  about  330°  F. :  a  crystalline,  feathery  sublimate  is  formed, 
of  peculiar  appearance,  and  varying  according  to  the  degree 
of  heat.  The  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  will  thus  yield  highly 
satisfactory  results,  easily  visible  by  the  microscope.  (Guy's 
Forens.  Med.,  p.  499.) 

(7)  Sulpho-molybdic  acid. — This  is  made  by  dissolving  with 
a  gentle  heat  five  or  six  grains  of  powdered  molybdate  of 
ammonia  in  two  drachms  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.     The 
liquid  should  be  freshly  prepared,  and  kept  from  contact 
with  air  and  organic  matter.     When  one  or  two  drops  are 
rubbed  with  dry  morphia,  or  any  of  its  salts,  an  intense  pur- 
plish or  crimson  color  is  produced ;  this  changes  to  a  dingy 
green,  and  ultimately  to  a  splendid  sapphire-blue.     A  very 
minute  trace  of  morphia  is  thus  revealed.   This  test  produces 
no  change  on  strychnia,  the  mixture  slowly  acquiring  a  pale- 
blue  tint.     On  brucia  and  veratria  it  ultimately  produces  a 
dark-blue  color.     The  action  on  salicine  closely  resembles 
that  produced  on  morphia.    (Taylor's  Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed., 
1873,  p.  210.) 

(8)  lodie  acid  with  sidphide  of  carbon  (Taylor). — A  solution 
of  iodic  acid  should  be  mixed  with  its  volume  of  sulphide  of 
carbon  :  there  ought  to  be  no  change  of  color.     On  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  the  mixture  to  morphia  or  its  salts,  either 
solid  or  in  solution,  the  iodine  is  liberated  and  is  dissolved 
by  the  sulphide,  which  sinks  to  the  bottom,  acquiring  a  pink 
or  red  color,  varying  in  intensity  according  to  the  quantity 
of  morphia  present.     The  presence  of  morphia  may  thus 
(according  to  Dr.  Taylor)  be  distinguished  in  one  drop  of 
laudanum,  in  chlorodyne,  and  other  liquids,  in  spite  of  the 
presence  of  organic  matter. 

Several  other  tests  are  mentioned  in  the  books,  but  they 
are  not  so  characteristic  as  those  above  described.  These 
are  iodide  of  potassium  and  iodine,  ter chloride  of  gold,  bromine  in 
hydrobromic  acid,  etc. 

MECONIC  ACID. — This  acid  is  pecular  to  opium,  in  which 


OPIUM. — TESTS   FOR   MECONIC   ACID.  377 

it  occurs  in  combination  with  morphia.  Its  detection,  there- 
fore, in  a  suspected  material  may  be  regarded  as  positive 
proof  of  the  presence  of  opium.  In  its  pure  state,  it  is  in 
the  form  of  colorless  crystalline  plates,  tolerably  soluble  in 
water,  especially  if  hot ;  more  so  in  alcohol.  It  is  believed 
to  be  inert  in  the  human  system,  judging  from  experiments 
made  upon  animals. 

Tests. — (1)  By  far  the  most  delicate  chemical  test  is  sesqui- 
chloride  or  persulphate  of  iron,  each  of  which  strikes  with 
solutions  of  raeconic  acid,  and  also  with  the  acid  in  its  solid 
form,  a  blood-red  color,  which  is  not  removed  by  dilute 
acids,  by  corrosive  sublimate,  or  by  chloride  of  gold,  but  is 
discharged  by  protochloride  of  tin  and  sulphurous  acid. 
This  test  succeeds  even  in  very  dilute  solutions  of  meconic 
acid ;  and  it  is  owing  to  the  presence  of  this  acid  that  a 
minute  quantity  of  laudanum,  or  of  other  liquid  preparations 
of  opium,  diffused  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  will  yield  a 
red  color  on  the  addition  of  a  persalt  of  iron.  The  only 
fallacy  that  would  be  likely  to  occur  in  a  medico-legal  case  is 
from  the  presence  of  some  sulphocyanide  in  the  material  exam- 
ined, as  the  sulphocyanide  of  potassium  of  the  saliva,  which 
yields  a  similar  red  color  with  a  persalt  of  iron.  We  have 
frequently  verified  the  experiment  with  human  saliva.  Of 
course,  if  the  contents  of  the  human  stomach  (which  must 
necessarily  contain  more  or  less  saliva  that  has  been  swal- 
lowed) be  subjected  to  the  above  test,  in  a  suspected  case  of 
opium-poisoning,  an  erroneous  inference  might  be  drawn  if 
this  single  test  were  relied  on :  it  should  always  be  supple- 
mented by  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
which  instantly  dissolves  the  red  sulphocyanide  of  iron,  but 
has  no  effect  on  the  meconate. 

Another  fallacy,  although  less  likely  to  occur  than  the 
foregoing,  is  that  occasioned  by  strong  acetic  acid  or  its  salts, 
both  of  which  give  a  red  color  with  persalt  of  iron ;  and 
this  color,  moreover,  is  not  removed  by  corrosive  sublimate 
or  chloride  of  gold.  But  if  previously  boiled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  the  acetate  gives  no  color  with  the  iron  salt, 
and  is  thus  distinguished  from  a  meconate.  Again,  an  acetate 
solution  differs  from  a  mecoiiate  in  not  yielding  any  precipi- 


378  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

tate  with  acetate  of  lead.  A  concentrated  solution  of 
mustard  also  imparts  a  red  color  to  a  persalt  of  iron,  which, 
however,  is  immediately  removed  by  corrosive  sublimate, 
but  not  by  chloride  of  gold. 

(2)  Acetate  of  lead  yields  a  yellowish-white  precipitate — me- 
conate  of  lead,  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  acetic  acid.  This 
reagent  is  thus  employed  to  separate  the  meconic  acid  in  the 
analysis  of  a  case  of  opium-poisoning.  (3)  Chloride  of  barium 
yields  a  white,  crystalline  depositof  a  peculiar  form.  (4)  Nitrate 
of  silver  produces  an  amorphous  precipitate  of  a  yellowish  or 
white  color,  which  becomes  red  on  the  addition  of  a  persalt 
of  iron.  Other  tests  are  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  chloride  of 
calcium,  and  hydrochloric  acid. 

Although  the  other  alkaloidal  constituents  of  opium  are 
not  usually  sought  for  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  that  drug,  it 
may  be  proper  here  to  allude  to  these  very  briefly,  mention- 
ing the  characteristic  tests  for  each. 

NARCOTINA. — This  alkaloid,  when  pure,  occurs  in  colorless, 
transparent  crystals,  or  as  a  granular  powder.  It  has  a  bitter 
taste;  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  and  still  more  so  in  chloroform.  Narcotina  is  usu- 
ally considered  inert.  Orfila  found  that  thirty  grains  were 
required  to  kill  a  dog;  and,  according  to  Gmelin  (Handbook 
of  Chemistry,  xvi.  p.  137),  doses  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
grains  are  said  to  have  been  given  to  man  without  effect. 
Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  of  Philadelphia,  took  thirty  grains, 
with  no  appreciable  result  (Effect  of  Opium  and  its  Deriva- 
tive Alkaloids:  Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  Jan.,  1870,  p.  23); 
but  he  found,  by  an  unexplained  anomaly,  that  this  substance 
acts,  in  doses  of  two  to  sev^n  grains,  as  a  powerful  convul- 
sant  on  pigeons,  terminating  in  speedy  death.  This  effect 
contrasts  remarkably  with  that  of  morphia,  of  which  enor- 
mous doses  are  required  by  birds  in  order  to  produce  effect. 
Both  alkaloids  excite  in  them  spasms,  which  are  frequently 
tetanic  in  character.  Neither  of  them  produces  stupor. 

Unlike  morphia,  narcotina  produces  no  color  with  a  persalt 
of  iron  or  a  mixture  of  iodic  acid  and  starch.  Its  character- 
istic test  is  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate  of  potassa. 


CODEIA. — NARCEIKE.  379 

If  a  minute  fragment  of  narcotina,  or  the  deposit  resulting 
from  evaporating  a  small  portion  of  the  solution,  be  dissolved 
in  a  few  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  a  small  crystal  of 
nitre  be  stirred  in  the  solution,  it  will  quickly  acquire  a  deep 
blood-red  color.  This  color  disappears  on  adding  an  excess 
of  nitric  acid. 

CODEIA. — This  alkaloid  has  much  stronger  basic  properties 
than  narcotina.  It  occurs  in  white  crystals;  it  is  quite  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform.  Its  taste  is  bitter. 
Codeia  is  regarded  by  Magendie  as  a  hypnotic  and  stupefier. 
Drs.  Harley  and  S.  W.  Mitchell  deem  it  to  possess  but  feeble 
hypnotic  powers.  In  man,  it  first  causes  excitement,  with 
contracted  pupil,  slight  giddiness,  and  some  gastro-intestinal 
derangement.  On  birds,  however,  Dr.  Mitchell  found  that 
it  acted  as  a  more  powerful  convulsant  than  narcotina ;  death 
occurring  from  smaller  doses  and  in  a  shorter  time.  It  dif- 
fers from  morphia  in  not  decomposing  iodic  acid,  and  in  not 
being  reddened  by  nitric  acid.  From  narcotina  it  is  distin- 
guished by  not  being  turned  red  by  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate 
of  potassa.  Nitric  acid  and  potassa  form  one  of  its  best  tests. 
When  strong  nitric  acid  is  added  to  a  small  quantity  of  co- 
deia,  it  dissolves  it,  with  the  evolution  of  nitrous  fumes,  and 
on  evaporation  leaves  a  yellowish  residue.  On  touching  this 
with  a  drop  of  caustic  potassa,  it  assumes  a  beautiful  orange 
tint. 

NARCEINE. — This  is  usually  considered  to  be  a  neutral 
principle.  It  exists  in  opium  in  about  the  same  proportion 
as  morphia.  Narceine  is  regarded  by  M.  Bernard  as  a  hyp- 
notic of  even  greater  power  than  morphia ;  but  this  idea 
does  not  seem  to  be  supported  by  the  experiments  of  Harley 
and  Mitchell.  The  latter  was  not  sensible  of  any  soporific 
effect  after  taking  a  dose  of  five  grains.  The  same  is  also 
true  of  birds  (loc.  cit.,  p.  26).  It  is  not  acted  upon  by  a  per- 
salt  of  iron.  It  crystallizes  in  delicate,  needle-shaped  tufts. 
It  is  very  insoluble  in  water ;  strong  sulphuric  acid  gives  it 
a  reddish-brown  color,  which,  on  the  application  of  heat, 
changes  to  a  deep  red.  When  dropped  into  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid,  it  becomes  blue,  and  dissolves  into  a  color- 


380  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

less  solution.    All  samples  will  not  yield  this  blue  color  when 
treated  as  above. 

THEBAIA,  or  PARAMORPHIA,  is  another  of  the  alkaloids  found 
in  opium.  Its  tetanizing  power  has  long  been  known, — a 
dog,  according  to  Dr.  Harley,  being  killed  by  two  grains 
given  hypodermically.  In  Dr.  S.  W.  Mitchell's  experiments 
it  proved  speedily  fatal  to  pigeons,  exciting  in  them  the 
most  violent  tetanic  convulsions,  closely  resembling  those  of 
strychnia,  in  the  course  of  a  minute  or  two,  and  with  only 
one-third  of  a  grain  given  hypodermically.  In  fact,  of  all 
the  principles  of  opium,  this  substance  was  found  to  be  the 
most  powerful  toxic  to  birds. 

MECONIN,  or  OPIANYL,  is  a  neutral  crystalline  substance 
occurring  in  delicate  needles  or  in  long  prisms ;  taste,  some- 
what bitter.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  to  a  colorless 
solution,  which,  on  being  heated,  becomes  of  a  beautiful  blue 
or  purple  color.  A  very  minute  portion  will  yield  satisfac- 
tory results  with  this  reagent. 

Detection  of  opium  in  organic  mixtures,  or  in  the  contents  of  the 
stomach. — It  occasionally  happens  that  the  strong  odor  of 
opium  can  be  recognized  in  organic  mixtures,  as  e.g.  in  the 
matters  vomited,  or  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  after 
death  :  this,  of  course,  will  assist  very  materially  in  the  diag- 
nosis of  the  case.  As  a  rule,  however,  this  aid  will  not  be 
furnished,  and  when  we  come  to  apply  the  characteristic 
chemical  test  to  the  stomach  after  death  we  shall  fail  to 
recognize  the  poison  sought,  in  consequence  of  its  removal 
by  vomiting,  or  by  digestion,  decomposition,  or  absorption. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of  infants  who  have  per- 
ished after  a  very  small  dose, — e.g.  from  a  few  drops  of  lauda- 
num. The  highest  authorities  unite  in  the  opinion  that  in 
cases  of  poisoning  by  crude  opium  or  its  liquid  preparations 
it  is  the  exception,  and  not  the  rule,  for  the  analyst  to  be  able 
to  recognize  it  in  the  stomach  after  death.  (See  Christison 
and  Taylor  on  Poisons,  art.  Opium.')  It  is  much  more 
likely  to  be  found  in  the  matters  vomited.  In  any  case,  the 
proper  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  cut  up  the  solid  matters,  if 
any,  into  very  small  pieces,  adding  distilled  water,  if  neces- 


DETECTION   OF   OPIUM   IN   OEGANIC   MIXTURES.  381 

eary,  with  a  little  alcohol,  acidulating  with  pure  acetic  acid ; 
the  materials  should  be  well  mixed  together,  and  subjected 
to  a  gentle  heat.  A  trial  test  should  now  be  made  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  clear  liquid  with  nitric  acid  and  a  persalt  of  iron 
for  morphia  and  meconic  acid  respectively.  If  the  liquid  be 
highly  colored,  it  will  be  advisable  to  dilute  it  with  water 
before  applying  these  tests.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
iron  test  will  detect  a  very  minute  quantity  of  meconic  acid. 

After  heating  the  mixture,  as  above  described,  for  about 
half  an  hour,  it  should,  after  cooling,  be  strained  through 
muslin,  the  solid  residue  well  washed  with  strong  alcohol, 
and  pressed,  the  washings  being  added  to  the  first  liquid. 
The  liquid  is  next  to  be  evaporated  over  a  water-bath  to  a 
small  volume ;  and,  when  cooled,  it  is  to  be  filtered  through 
filtering-paper  previously  wetted.  The  filter  is  to  be  washed 
with  dilute  alcohol,  and  the  washings  added  to  the  filtrate. 
To  the  clear  filtrate  acetate  of  lead  is  added  in  slight  excess : 
this  precipitates  the  meconic  acid  as  meconate  of  lead,  and 
leaves  the  morphia  in  solution  as  an  acetate.  Any  sulpho- 
cyanide  present  in  the  stomach  would  also  remain  dissolved. 
"When  the  precipitate  has  completely  subsided,  the  whole  is 
transferred  to  a  moistened  filter,  and  the  solid  residue  is 
completely  washed  with  distilled  water. 

(a)  The  impure  meconate  of  lead  on  the  filter  is  to  be 
washed  into  a  deep  glass,  by  piercing  the  filter  and  using 
a  wash-bottle.  A  stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  now 
passed  through  the  water  containing  the  diffused  meconate, 
as  long  as  any  sulphide  of  lead  is  thrown  down.  The  lib- 
erated meconic  acid  will  remain  in  solution.  The  liquid  is 
now  filtered,  and  the  clear  filtrate  is  concentrated  by  a  gentle 
heat,  which  also  serves  to  expel  the  excess  of.  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  A  few  drops  of  the  solution  may  now  be  examined 
by  a  persalt  of  iron,  and  if  the  presence  of  meconic  acid  is 
decidedly  indicated,  the  remainder  of  the  liquid  may  be  tested 
with  the  other  proper  reagents.  On  proper  concentration, 
the  liquid  will  yield  crystals  of  meconic  acid,  provided  this 
be  present  in  sufficient  quantity.  If,  however,  little  or  no 
indication  of  meconic  acid  is  given,  the  liquid  should  be 
carefully  concentrated  to  a  small  volume,  and  a  drop  or  two 

25 


382  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

should  be  tested  with  the  iron  and  other  tests,  before  deciding 
on  the  absence  of  the  poison. 

As  the  presence  of  foreign  matters  interferes  with  the 
delicacy  of  these  operations,  it  may  be  advisable  either  to 
evaporate  the  liquid  to  complete  dryness,  and  dissolve  the 
residue  in  warm  water  and  filter,  or  to  reprecipitate  with 
acetate  of  lead,  and  decompose,  as  before,  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

Another  method  for  decomposing  the  meconate  of  lead  is 
to  digest  it  at  a  moderate  heat  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
which  throws  down  the  lead  as  an  insoluble  sulphate,  and 
leaves  the  meconic  acid  in  solution.  The  former  process 
is,  however,  on  the  whole,  to  be  preferred. 

(6)  The  original  filtrate,  it  will  be  remembered,  contains 
all  the  morphia  in  the  form  of  an  acetate,  together  with  an 
excess  of  acetate  of  lead.  It  should  be  treated  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  until  all  the  lead  is  precipitated,  then 
filtered,  and  the  filtrate  concentrated  by  gentle  heat  to  dry- 
ness.  The  residue  should  be  dissolved  in  a  little  warm,  dis- 
tilled water,  and  a  drop  or  two  examined  for  morphia  with 
nitric  acid  and  perchloride  of  iron,  as  trial  tests.  Whether 
or  not  these  tests  indicate  the  presence  of  morphia,  the  re- 
maining liquid,  diluted  with  distilled  water,  if  necessary,  is 
made  distinctly  alkaline  by  carbonate  of  potassa,  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  some  time ;  then  it  is  to  be  agitated  with  several 
volumes  of  absolute  ether.  Under  these  circumstances  none 
of  the  morphia  is  taken  up  by  the  ether,  which  only  separates 
certain  foreign  matters.  The  ethereal  solution  is  to  be  care- 
fully decanted,  and  set  aside  for  future  examination.  The 
remaining  alkaline  liquid  is  now  to  be  shaken  violently  with 
four  or  five  times  its  volume  of  a  mixture  consisting  of  two 
parts  of  absolute  ether  and  one  of  pure  alcohol.  This  opera- 
tion is  best  performed  in  a  long  glass  tube.  By  this  process 
the  morphia  is  separated,  and  will  be  contained  in  the  super- 
natant ethereal  mixture.  On  carefully  decanting  this,  and 
allowing  it  to  evaporate  spontaneously  in  a  watch-glass,  the 
morphia  will  often  be  left  in  a  crystalline  form ;  but  if  it  exists 
in  very  minute  quantity,  and  is  mixed  with  much  foreign 
matter,  the  deposit  will  be  amorphous.  In  the  latter  case, 


DETECTION   OF   MORPHIA   IN   THE   TISSUES.  383 

Prof.  Wormley  advises  to  wash  the  dry  residue  by  gently 
rotating  a  few  drops  of  pure  water  over  it  in  the  glass,  and 
then  decanting  the  liquid.  Small  portions  of  the  solid  residue 
are  now  to  be  tested  by  nitric  acid  and  perchloride  of  iron, 
and  the  remaining  portion  of  the  residue  is  dissolved  in  a 
few  drops  of  water,  with  the  aid  of  sufficient  acetic  acid. 
This  solution  may  then  be  subjected  to  the  various  liquid 
tests  (ante,  p.  375).  A  few  drops  of  this  solution,  if  exposed 
to  the  vapors  of  ammonia,  will  become  alkaline,  and,  after 
some  hours,  will  deposit  the  alkaloid  in  its  characteristic 
crystalline  form,  as  shown  by  the  microscope. 

The  process  of  Uslar  and  Erdmann  is  recommended  by 
good  authorities  as  of  equal,  if  not  superior,  value  to  the  one 
above  described.  By  this  method,  amylic  alcohol  is  employed 
to  dissolve  out  the  morphia  from  the  alkaline  solution,  instead 
of  ether  and  alcohol.  Two  or  three  volumes  of  hot  amylic 
alcohol  are  shaken  up  with  the  liquid,  and,  after  being  allowed 
to  rest  for  some  time,  the  upper  or  alcoholic  stratum  is  to  be 
removed  by  means  of  a  caoutchouc  pipette,  and  allowed  to 
evaporate  to  dryness  in  a  watch-glass  by  the  aid  of  a  gentle 
heat :  sometimes  the  morphia  may  be  recovered  by  this 
means  in  the  crystalline  form,  though  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
left  in  an  amorphous  state  than  when  deposited  from  an 
ethereal  solution.  Should  the  residue  be  amorphous,  it  may 
be  redissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  ordinary  dilute  alcohol, 
and  allowed  to  evaporate  spontaneously. 

Examination  for  morphia  alone,  or  its  salts. — When  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  poisoning  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  one  of  the  salts  of  morphia,  the  same  method  of 
analysis  of  the  suspected  material  is  to  be  followed,  with 
the  omission  of  the  acetate  of  lead  and  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen,— inasmuch  as  no  meconic  acid  is  present.  The  ultimate 
extraction  of  the  alkaloid  may  be  effected  by  the  alcohol- 
ether,  or  by  the  amylic  alcohol. 

Detection  in  the  tissues- and  blood. — Thus  far  there  has  been 
an  almost  entire  failure  to  detect  the  poison  in  any  of  the 
organs  of  the  body.  Prof.  Wormley  succeeded  in  showing 
the  presence  of  both  morphia  and  meconic  acid  in  the  blood 
of  several  dogs  and  cats,  by  the  nitric  acid,  ammonia,  and 


384  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

iron  tests.  There  is  considerable  doubt  about  the  detection 
of  these  principles  in  the  urine,  inasmuch  as  the  results 
alleged  to  have  been  produced  by  certain  reagents,  and  sup- 
posed to  indicate  the  presence  of  morphia  or  meconic  acid, 
have  since  been  proved  to  be  due  to  substances  existing  nor- 
mally in  the  urine. 

As  there  is  no  medicine  more  freely  prescribed  than  opium 
and  its  preparations,  the  discovery  of  mere  traces  in  the 
stomach  after  death  should  not  be  considered  as  of  itself  in- 
dicating  death  from  poison. 

Before  taking  leave  of  this  subject,  it  is  proper  to  guard 
the  analyst  against  a  too  hasty  conclusion  as  to  the  presence 
of  opium  or  its  alkaloid,  in  a  medico-legal  case,  derived  from 
the  color  alone.  In  a  preceding  chapter  (p.  77)  we  have  taken 
occasion  to  point  out  the  dangerous  fallacy  of  relying  merely 
on  the  color  of  different  tests  in  a  medico-legal  examination. 
Ortila  tells  us  that  MM.  Ruspini  and  Cogrossi  found  that  a 
decoction  of  a  calf  s  intestines,  although  no  morphia  was 
present,  acted  on  iodic  acid  like  that  alkaloid  (Toxicol.,  ii.  p. 
232).  In  another  case  morphia  was  pronounced  to  be  present 
in  urine  by  reason  of  the  action  of  the  extract  of  this  liquid 
on  iodic  acid.  The  effect  was  found  to  be  due  to  uric  acid 
and  urate  of  ammonia.  Dr.  Taylor  cites  a  very  instructive 
case  in  which  sudden  death  from  apoplexy  was  imputed  to 
opium,  and  where  a  decoction  of  the  contents  of  the  stom- 
ach of  the  deceased,  treated  with  nitric  acid,  yielded  a  red 
color,  similar  to  that  produced  by  morphia;  but  no  morphia 
was  separated,  and  no  mecouic  acid  found,  or  even  sought 
for.  Upon  this  very  questionable  result,  a  distinguished 
chemist  (?)  who  made  the  analysis  deposed  at  the  inquest  that 
he  had  found  in  the  stomach  "distinct  traces  of  morphia," 
and  that  the  quantity  discovered  was  about  the  tenth  of  a 
grain  ;  and  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  was  ascribed  to  ab- 
sorption. The  facts  which  subsequently  transpired  showed 
that  there  could  have  been  no  morphia  or  opium  present 
in  the  stomach;  but  that  the  person  had  died  from  purely 
natural  causes.  The  author  quoted  further  justly  remarks, 
that  "  unless  morphia  or  meconic  acid,  or  both,  have  been 
separated  and  obtained  from  the  suspected  liquid,  no  man 


POISONING   BY   ALCOHOL. — SYMPTOMS.  385 

is  justified  in  swearing  that  opium  is  present,  and  still  less 
that  it  has  been  the  cause,  of  death.  The  correspondence 
on  this  subject  conveys  an  important  lesson  to  medical 
witnesses,  and  especially  to  the  '  experts'  in  the  chemical 
branch  of  medical  jurisprudence."  In  the  above  case  it 
was  fortunate  that  some  of  the  medicine  last  taken  by  the 
deceased  remained,  so  that  the  absence  of  morphia  was 
proved  by  analysis ;  otherwise  the  husband  who  adminis- 
tered it,  or  the  druggist  who  compounded  it,  might  have 
been  charged  with  manslaughter,  especially  as  the  symptoms 
(apoplexy)  resembled  those  of  opium-poisoning,  and  this  was 
further  supported  by  the  oath  of  the  "  expert." 


SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY   ALCOHOL. 

The  poisonous  effects  of  Alcohol  are  of  a  twofold  character: 
1,  those  with  which  we  are  most  familiar  as  the  result  of 
habitual  intoxication,  as  witnessed  in  common  drunkards; 
and  2,  those  which  follow  the  iugestion  of  a  single  very 
large  dose  of  alcoholic  spirits.  The  latter  only  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  present  head.  Instances  of  this  kind  of 
poisoning  are  most  commonly  witnessed  in  those  silly  and 
criminal  cases  where  for  a  wager,  or  as  a  mere  bravado,  a 
large  quantity  of  spirits  is  drunk  off  at  one  time,  and  also  in 
cases  of  young  children  who  have  accidentally  swallowed,  or 
who  have  been  made  to  take,  a  large  draught  of  some  strong 
alcoholic  beverage.  In  both  cases,  it  is  to  be  observed,  the 
poisonous  and  fatal  effects  are  produced  not  so  much  upon 
persons  who  are  accustomed  to  the  use  of  alcohol,  as  upon 
those  who  are  not  thus  habituated. 

The  symptoms  of  this  acute  alcoholic  poisoning  are  well 
marked.  The  individual,  after  swallowing  the  large  pota- 
tion, almost  immediately  falls  into  a  profound  coma.  There 
is  little  or  none  of  the  previous  excitement  which  is  usually 
so  characteristic  of  the  early  stages  of  common  alcoholic 
intoxication.  There  is  a  vacant,  ghastly  expression  of  the 
features,  which  are  sometimes  suffused  or  bloated;  the  lips 


386  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

are  livid;  the  pupils  dilated  and  fixed;  the  conjunctivas  are 
suffused ;  an  alcoholic  exhalation  from  the  breath  is  recog- 
nized ;  there  are  apt  to  be  convulsive  movements  of  the 
limbs;  respiration,  at  first  stertorous,  becomes  more  and 
more  difficult ;  a  bloody  froth  appears  on  the  lips ;  involun- 
tary evacuations  occur ;  and  death  ensues  sometimes  in  half 
an  hour,  or  even  earlier,  after  the  fatal  drink  (Tardieu).  In, 
other  instances,  the  individual  may  apparently  recover  from 
the  first  effects,  and  then  suddenly  become  insensible,  and 
die  in  convulsions. 

If  the  dose  has  not  been  so  overpowering,  other  symptoms 
may  precede  the  profound  coma,  such  as  headache,  giddiness, 
confusion  of  mind,  loss  of  muscular  power,  staggering  gait, 
stammering  speech,  and  slight  convulsive  movements.  Re- 
covery may  take  place  after  a  prolonged  sleep,  or  sooner,  if 
vomiting  occurs.  The  very  large  quantities  seem  to  destroy 
life  by  shock. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — A  remarkable  absence  of  putre- 
faction of  the  body  is  generally  observed.  There  is  usually 
intense  congestion  of  the  stomach,  as  indicated  by  a  deep-red 
color,  either  diffused  or  in  patches.  More  or  less  congestion 
of  the  brain  and  lungs  may  always  be  expected,  together  with 
serous  effusion.  Tardieu  mentions  a  case  where  clotted  and 
thickened  blood  was  found  in  the  cavity  of  the  arachnoid, 
and  also  in  the  lungs  (op.  cit,,  p.  847).  Usually  a  strong  odor 
of  alcohol  can  be  perceived  in  the  different  tissues  of  the 
body ;  but  the  organs  for  which  this  poisonous  fluid  displays 
the  greatest  affinity  are  the  brain  and  liver,  and,  accordingly, 
it  is  from  these  organs,  especially,  that  we  may  expect  to 
recover  the  alcohol,  after  death,  by  distillation.  If  life  has 
been  protracted  for  several  hours,  all  traces  of  the  odor  may 
have  disappeared  both  from  the  stomach  and  from  the  other 
organs ;  though  it  is  more  permanent  in  the  latter. 

The  diagnosis  of  a  case  of  acute  alcoholism  is  generally 
sufficiently  easy.  The  odor,  when  it  exists,  will  serve  to 
distinguish  it  from  opium-poisoning.  In  the  latter  the  pupils 
are  nearly  always  contracted ;  while  in  the  former  they  are 
dilated.  Cases  may  occur  where,  in  the  absence  of  the 
characteristic  odor,  and  from  an  ignorance  of  the  attending 


POISONING   BY   ALCOHOL. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  387 

circumstances,  it  might  be  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
the  symptoms  and  those  of  concussion  of  the  brain.  In  such 
cases,  the  autopsy  may  throw  some  light  upon  the  matter. 

Chemical  analysis. — Alcohol  may  usually  be  recovered  after 
death,  by  distilling  the  stomach  and  its  contents,  provided 
the  case  has  not  been  protracted  so  long  as  to  have  permitted 
the  poison  to  escape  by  absorption.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
attempt  should  be  made  to  separate  it  from  the  brain  and 
liver,  by  the  same  process.  The  whole  of  the  suspected  ma- 
terial should  be  put  into  a  capacious  retort,  and  distilled  on  a 
water-bath,  with  a  proper  condensing  apparatus.  If  it  has 
an  acid  reaction,  it  should  first  be  neutralized  by  the  addition 
of  carbonate  of  potassa  or  soda.  The  distillate  should  be 
mixed  with  chloride  of  calcium  or  quicklime,  and  distilled 
a  second  time.  The  second  distillate  is  to  be  shaken  with  an 
excess  of  carbonate  of  potassa,  and  allowed  to  stand.  The 
stratum  of  alcohol  which  will  after  a  time  rise  to  the  surface 
may  be  separated  by  a  pipette,  and  submitted  to  the  following 
tests :  (1)  Its  taste  is  hot  and  pungent ;  its  odor  characteristic. 
(2)  It  burns  with  a  pale-blue  flame,  leaving  no  carbonaceous 
residue ;  the  products  of  its  combustion  are  carbonic  acid 
and  water:  the  former  will  cause  a  milky  appearance  in 
lime-water.  (3)  It  dissolves  camphor.  (4)  Add  to  it  some 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa  and  sulphuric  acid:  the 
green  oxide  of  chromium  is  developed,  along  with  the  pecu- 
liar odor  of  aldehyde.  This  latter  test  is  very  delicate,  and 
will  serve  to  detect  an  amount  of  alcohol  too  minute  for  the 
other  processes.  In  this  case,  the  experiment  should  be  per- 
formed by  moistening  a  few  fibres  of  asbestos  with  a  mixture 
of  a  strong  solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa  and  sulphuric 
acid ;  they  are  then  to  be  placed  in  the  tube  connected  with 
the  retort  in  which  the  distillation  is  going  on :  the  smallest 
portion  of  alcoholic  vapor  coming  in  contact  with  the  moist- 
ened asbestos  will  be  indicated  by  the  production  of  the  green 
coloration  due  to  the  oxide  of  chromium. 

Both  ether  and  pyroxylic  spirit  will  produce  this  last  effect, 
and  likewise  give  most  of  the  results  of  alcohol.  Ether  may 
be  distinguished  by  its  odor,  and  by  the  yellow  color  of  its 
flame,  as  also  by  its  smoky  deposit  on  porcelain.  Pyroxylic 


388  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

spirit  may  be  recognized  by  its  peculiar  odor,  and  by  its  smoky 
flame  on  burning. 

In  the  tissues. — The  proof  of  the  absorption  of  alcohol  ia 
afforded  in  its  detection  in  the  blood  and  urine,  and  in  the 
different  tissues  of  the  body.  It  has  been  frequently  sepa- 
rated from  the  brain  and  liver  by  distillation.  Dr.  Percy 
detected  it  in  the  liver,  blood,  urine,  and  bile.  An  exceed- 
ingly delicate  process  has  been  devised  by  Buchheim  for 
detecting  it  in  small  quantity  in  the  blood  or  tissues,  based 
on  the  conversion  of  the  vapor  of  alcohol  into  aldehyde  and 
acetic  acid,  when  it  is  passed  over  platinum-black,  contained  in 
a  platinum  tray.  As  much  as  possible  of  the  material,  neutral- 
ized first  by  carbonate  of  potassa,  should  be  introduced  into 
a  capacious  retort,  along  with  a  little  water,  and  distilled  on 
a  water-bath.  The  neck  of  the  retort  should  be  slightly  in- 
clined, and  wide  enough  to  hold  a  platinum  tray  about  two 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  containing  the  platinum- 
black.  Hanging  over  each  end  of  the  tray  is  placed  a  slip 
of  moistened  litmus-paper,  and  touching  the  platinum-black. 
The  tray  is  now  pushed  forward  towards  the  body  of  the 
retort.  As  soon  as  the  vaporization  of  any  alcohol  that  may 
be  present  occurs,  it  will  be  manifested  by  the  reddening  of 
the  litmus-paper  at  the  farther  end  of  the  tray,  in  consequence 
of  the  production  of  acetic  acid,  while  the  paper  nearer  to 
the  body  of  the  retort  will  remain  blue.  If  no  reddening  of 
the  paper  occurs,  no  alcohol  can  be  present ;  if  the  redden- 
ing rapidly  occurs,  the  tray  should  be  removed,  and  the  vapor 
should  be  condensed  in  the  usual  way. 

As  both  ether  and  wood  spirit  produce  a  similar  effect  with 
platinum-black,  this  process  offers  no  advantage  over  the 
chromic  process  above  described,  except  when  putrefaction 
has  taken  place,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  evolved  :  this 
would  reduce  chromic  acid,  but  it  does  not  affect  the  plati- 
num-black. (Taylor  on  Poisons,  p.  643.) 

A  new  test  for  alcohol  is  given  by  Lieben  (Phar.  Jour., 
1869).  A  few  grains  of  iodine  and  a  few  drops  of  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  are  introduced  into  a  test-tube  along  with  the 
suspected  fluid  :  it  is  then  heated  without  boiling,  when  iodo- 
form  is  precipitated.  It  is  stated  that  one  part  of  alcohol  in 


POISONING    BY   ETHER. — MOHBID   LESIONS.  389 

two  thousand  of  mixture  can  thus  be  detected ;  also,  that  it 
may  thus  be  discovered  in  the  urine  after  drinking,  by  first 
distilling  it. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

ANAESTHETICS. 

THIS  subdivision  of  the  Cerebral  Neurotics  comprises  those 
substances  which  display  their  power  chiefly  by  producing 
insensibility  to  pain.  The  only  anaesthetics  noticed  here  are 
Ether  and  Chloroform.  Under  this  head  it  will  also  be  con- 
venient to  speak  of  Hydrate  of  Chloral,  although  its  action 
on  the  system  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  others. 

SECTION  I. 

POISONING    BY    ETHER. 

The  term  ether  is  used  here  to  designate  the  substance 
procured  by  the  distillation  of  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol, 
and  known  generally  as  sulphuric  ether.  It  is  a  limpid,  color- 
less liquid,  of  a  peculiar  odor,  and  hot,  pungent  taste;  highly 
volatile  and  inflammable;  sp.  gr.,  0.735 ;  boils  at  95°  F.; 
it  burns  with  a  bright-yellow  flame,  and  deposits  carbon  on 
a  cold  porcelain  surface.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water, 
and  very  soluble  in  alcohol. 

Symptoms.  —  Swallowed  in  large  doses,  it  produces  very 
nearly  the  same  effects  as  a  large  amount  of  alcohol.  There 
is  usually  a  short  period  of  delirious  excitement,  which  is- 
followed  by  coma  and  other  symptoms  of  narcotism,  similar 
to  those  caused  by  alcohol. 

Morbid  lesions. — From  its  less  solubility  in  water,  ether  is 
a  more  powerful  local  irritant  than  alcohol.  In  the  body  of 
a  dog  poisoned  by  ether,  the  stomach  was  found  to  be  vio- 
lently inflamed,  as  also  the  mucous  lining  of  the  duodenum, 
though  in  a  less  degree.  The  heart  contained  black  blood, 


390  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

partly  coagulated ;  the  lungs  were  gorged  with  fluid  blood. 
(Ortila,  Toxicologie,  ii.  p.  531.) 

The  inhalation  of  the  vapor  of  ether  is  extensively  em- 
ployed, as  is  well  known,  as  an  ancestketic  agent.  When  thus 
breathed  into  the  lungs,  it  is  so  rapidly  carried  into  the  cir- 
culation that  its  effects  upon  the  brain  are  much  more 
prompt  and  decided  than  when  it  is  swallowed.  Although 
it  has  produced  fatal  effects  in  a  number  of  instances  when 
thus  employed,  either  through  want  of  proper  caution,  or 
owing  to  some  constitutional  peculiarity  of  the  patient,  this 
result  has  been  far  less  frequent  than  in  the  case  of  chloro- 
form. The  immediate  operation  of  ether,  when  inhaled,  is 
that  of  a  stimulant,  as  denoted  by  a  quickened  pulse,  flushed 
face,  suffused  eye,  and  mental  excitement.  This  is  soon 
followed,  if  the  dose  be  sufficient,  by  a  state  of  stupor  and 
complete  insensibility  to  pain.  This  last  condition  may  be 
prolonged  for  a  considerable  time  by  continuing  the  inha- 
lation. There  is  occasionally  a  departure  from  the  above 
effects :  thus,  there  may  be  violent  excitement  at  one  time ; 
at  other  times,  a  state  of  incoherence  ;  and  again,  nausea  and 
vomiting. 

Chemical  analysis. — Ether  is  recognized  by  its  taste  and 
smell ;  by  its  combustion ;  by  its  volatility ;  and  by  its  action 
on  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potassa — 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol. 

From  organic  mixtures  it  is  recovered  by  the  same  process 
of  distillation  as  for  alcohol. 


SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY   CHLOROFORM. — HYDRATE   OF   CHLORAL. 

Chloroform  is  a  colorless,  limpid  liquid,  very  volatile,  giving 
off  a  dense  vapor ;  sp.  gr.,  1.497  ;  boiling  at  142°  F.  It  has  a 
characteristic,  agreeable  odor,  and  a  sweet,  pungent  taste.  It 
is  very  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol ;  nearly  insoluble  in  water, 
in  which  it  sinks  in  globules.  It  is  not  inflammable,  like 
ether  and  alcohol.  It  is  a  powerful  solvent  of  many  organic 
substances,  among  which  the  alkaloids  deserve  special  notice. 


POISONING    BY   CHLOROFORM. — SYMPTOMS.  391 

At  a  red  heat,  its  vapor  is  decomposed  into  chlorine  and 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Effects  and  Symptoms.  —  Chloroform,  like  ether,  has  ob- 
tained much  notoriety  as  a  powerful  anaesthetic  agent.  This 
impression  is  more  rapidly  produced  by  it  than  by  ether. 
There  is,  moreover,  an  absence  of  the  preceding  excitement 
that  is  witnessed  in  ether,  and  the  patient  almost  immediately 
loses  his  sensibility,  while  the  muscular  system  becomes 
completely  relaxed.  It  appears  to  act  as  a  depressant  to  the 
system  from  the  first ;  and  if  administered  in  the  concentrated 
state,  and  not  properly  diluted  with  atmospheric  air,  it  may 
produce  very  rapidly  fatal  effects.  In  some  instances  death 
has  occurred  within  two  minutes  from  the  commencement  of 
inhalation.  In  one  case  the  fatal  result  took  place  in  one 
minute  after  breathing  only  thirty  drops  in  the  state  of  vapor; 
and  in  another  case  only  fifteen  drops  proved  fatal  in  a  very 
short  time.  Occasionally,  death  has  occurred  even  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  vapor,  apparently  by  its  cumulative  effects 
on  the  system.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  far  more  dangerous  an- 
aesthetic agent  than  ether;  and  instances  of  its  fatal  effects 
are  constantly  being  reported  in  the  medical  journals.  Cer- 
tain constitutional  disorders  render  a  patient  particularly 
liable  to  danger  from  the  inhalation  of  chloroform :  among 
these  may  be  especially  mentioned  fatty  degeneration  of  the 
heart.  The  immediate  cause  of  death  from  chloroform  vapor 
appears  to  be,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  syncope,  or  a  cessa- 
tion of  the  heart's  action ;  and  in  others,  asphyxia. 

The  effects  of  chloroform,  when  taken  internally,  particu- 
larly claim  the  attention  of  the  toxicologist.  These  effects 
are  those  of  a  local  irritant  to  the  stomach,  together  with 
those  of  a  powerful  narcotic,  causing  speedy  insensibility, 
stupor,  convulsions,  dilated  pupils,  flushed  face,  a  full  and 
oppressed  pulse,  and  foaming  at  the  mouth.  Other  cases 
have  been  reported  in  which  the  pupil  was  contracted. 

When  swallowed,  chloroform  does  not  act  with  nearly  the 
activity  and  speed  that  it  exhibits  when  breathed  into  the 
lungs.  It  has  frequently  been  given  in  medical  practice  in 
doses  of  one  or  two  drachms  writh  impunity  ;  but  many  cases 
are  reported  where  it  produced  alarming  and  even  fatal 


392  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

symptoms  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce  and  upwards.  The 
smallest  fatal  dose  yet  recorded  is  mentioned  hy  Dr.  Taylor 
(On  Poisons,  p.  652),  where  a  boy,  aged  four  years,  died  in 
about  three  hours  after  swallowing  one  drachm  of  chloroform. 
He  soon  fell  into  a  state  of  complete  insensibility,  with  cold- 
ness of  skin  and  failure  of  pulse,  at  first,  but  subsequent 
reaction  and  stertorous  breathing  followed,  without  restora- 
tion to  consciousness. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — In  death  from  liquid  chloroform, 
the  characteristic  odor  will  usually  be  apparent,  together 
with  a  slow  putrefaction  of  the  body,  and  persistent  rigor 
mortis.  In  several  fatal  cases  reported,  there  was  evidence 
of  great  irritation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach, 
proceeding  to  actual  softening,  and  in  one  case  also  to  ulcera- 
tion. 

In  cases  of  death  resulting  from  chloroform-t'«/?or,  the  most 
common  lesions  are  great  congestion  of  the  lungs  and  bron- 
chial tubes,  with  a  dark  and  fluid  condition  of  the  blood. 
Sometimes  there  is  congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain  ; 
but  very  often  nothing  whatever  is  discovered  after  death  to 
indicate  the  manner  in  which  this  was  produced. 

Treatment. — In  poisoning  by  liquid  chloroform,  the  stomach- 
pump  should  be  immediately  employed.  When  the  vapor 
has  caused  the  danger,  the  chloroform  should  be  immediately 
withdrawn  from  the  nose,  and  the  patient  freely  exposed  to 
a  current  of  air;  cold  affusion  should  be  practiced;  the 
tongue  should  be  drawn  out  of  the  mouth  to  facilitate  respi- 
ration ;  artificial  respiration,  and  the  direct  electrical  current, 
may  also  be  employed. 

Chemical  analysis. — Organic  mixtures,  as  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  (if  they  have  not  been  too  long  exposed  to  the 
air),  will  readily  yield  any  contained  chloroform  by  distil- 
lation over  a  water-bath.  The  first  distillate  may  be  dis- 
tilled a  second  time  along  with  chloride  of  calcium ;  and  the 
product  subjected  to  the  proper  tests  for  chloroform, — taste, 
smell,  solubility,  volatility,  etc.  To  recover  it  from  the  blood 
and  tissues,  in  cases  of  inhalation,  the  process  devised  by 
Duroy  is  recommended.  The  blood,  liver,  brain,  etc.,  finely 
divided,  with  the  addition  of  distilled  water,  if  necessary,  are 


POISONING    BY   CHLOROFORM. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.       393 

put  into  a  large  glass  flask,  the  neck  of  which  is  fitted  with 
a  cork  perforated  to  contain  a  hard  glass  tube  bent  at  right 
angles,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  long.  The  flask 
is  gradually  heated  in  water  to  140°  P.,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  middle  of  the  tube  is  heated  red-hot  by  a  gas-jet.  At  a 
red  heat,  chloroform-vapor  is  decomposed  into  chlorine  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  A  slip  of  moistened  litmus-paper  placed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  tube  will  be  first  reddened,  and  then 
bleached.  Starch-paper  wetted  with  iodide  of  potassium  is 
rendered  blue;  and  nitrate  of  silver  solution  is  whitened  by 
the  production  of  chloride  of  silver,  which  may  easily  be 
identified.  In  cases  of  great  delicacy,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
use  a  porcelain  retort,  with  a  tube  inserted  through  the  tubu- 
lure,  which  communicates  with  a  bellows :  by  this  means  a 
regulated  current  of  air  can  be  kept  up  so  as  to  force  the 
chloroform-vapor  through  the  neck  of  the  retort,  which  is 
kept  at  a  full  red  heat  by  means  of  a  small  furnace.  To 
the  extremity  of  this  neck  are  attached  the  Liebig's  bulbs, 
containing  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  Any  chloroform- 
vapor  arising  from  the  contents  of  the  retort  is  forced  over 
the  heated  neck,  where  it  suffers  decomposition,  and  the 
chlorine  and  hydrochloric  acid  resulting  are  indicated  by  the 
white  precipitate  in  the  bulbs.  The  absence  of  any  free 
hydrochloric  acid  in  the  original  material  should  always 
first  be  insured  by  the  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda  or 
potash. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  if  hydrate  of  chloral  had 
been  taken  by  the  patient  just  previous  to  death,  and  the 
alkali  be  added  to  the  tissues,  the  chloral  would  be  decom- 
posed into  chloroform,  and  produce  all  the  above  reactions. 

Certain  important  medico -legal  points  connected  with 
chloroform  in  its  anaesthetic  relations,  and  especially  the 
question  "  whether  chloroform  can  be  used  to  facilitate  rob- 
bery," will  be  found  ably  discussed  by  Dr.  Stephen  Rogers, 
of  New  York,  in  the  "  Journal  of  Physiological  Medicine," 
October,  1871.  Dr.  II.  C.  Wood  states  (Therapeutics,  p. 
253)  that  experiments  made  at  the  Philadelphia  Hospital 
have  proven  that  persons  in  a  sound  sleep  may  be  chloroformed 
without  their  being  awakened ;  but  this  cannot  be  produced 


394  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

on  a  person  partially  awake,  or  even  sleeping  lightly,  without 
his  knowledge. 

HYDRATE  OF  CHLORAL. — This  is  a  solid,  crystalline  sub- 
stance, procured  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  alcohol.  It 
has  been  introduced  into  medicine  within  a  few  years  as  a 
substitute  for  opium,  as  a  sedative,  narcotic,  and  hypnotic.  It 
is  generally  efficient  in  doses  of  twenty  to  thirty  grains;  but 
much  larger  quantities  have  been  used,  not  only  with  im- 
punity, but  with  actual  benefit.  Nevertheless,  its  employ- 
ment in  large  doses  has  occasioned  dangerous  and  even  fatal 
results  in  a  number  of  reported  instances.  The  fatal  result 
has  usually  been  sudden,  the  victim  passing  from  sleep  to 
death  without  any  remarkable  symptoms. 

Considerable  discrepancy  exists  as  regards  the  fatal  dose 
of  chloral  hydrate.  A  large  number  of  cases  has  been  col- 
lected, showing,  on  the  one  hand,  that  a  fatal  result  not 
unfrequently  follows  an  ordinary  dose,  and,  on  the  other, 
that  the  most  enormous  quantities  may  be  swallowed  with 
impunity,  and  this  too  without  any  rejection  of  the  drug  by 
vomiting.  Dr.  B.  II.  Richardson,  of  London,  considers  two 
drachms  to  be  the  maximum  safe  dose  for  an  adult:  under 
any  circumstances  he  regards  three  drachms  as  a  fatal  dose. 
Evidence,  however,  can  be  adduced  to  show  that  a  much 
larger  amount  may  be  taken  without  a  necessarily  fatal  result. 
Dr.  Ludlow  reports  the  case  of  a  nurse  in  the  Philadelphia 
Hospital  who  was  believed  to  have  swallowed  four  hundred 
and  sixty  grains.  She  was  found  in  an  unconscious  condition, 
from  which  she  was  with  great  difficulty  rescued  by  vigorous 
flagellation,  and  by  the  application  of  electricity.  (Phila. 
Med.  Times,  Oct.  15,  1870.)  Dr.  Williams  relates  (Bait. 
Med.  Jour.,  Feb.,  1871)  the  case  of  a  man  who  took,  it  was 
supposed  with  suicidal  intent,  about  six  hundred  grains  of 
chloral,  the  only  appreciable  effect  of  which  was  the  pro- 
duction of  profound  coma,  lasting  eighteen  hours,  and  end- 
ing in  complete  recovery  without  any  medical  treatment. 
The  purity  of  the  drug  was  shown  by  an  examination  of 
the  portion  left  in  the  package.  The  above  is  probabh'  the 
largest  dose  on  record  not  attended  with  fatal  consequences. 


POISONING   BY   HYDRATE   OF    CHLORAL. — TESTS.  395 

On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  H.  "W.  Fuller  reports  a  case  in 
which  thirty  grains  produced  alarming  symptoms;  and  an- 
other, in  which  the  same  dose  caused  death  (Lancet,  March 
27,  1871).  Dr.  N.  R.  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  met  with  cases 
in  which  sudden  death  followed  ordinary  doses;  and  one 
instance  in  which  an  enema  containing  ninety  grains  pro- 
duced rapid  insensibility,  and  death  in  three  hours  (Lancet, 
1870,  ii.  p.  476).  From  what  is  known  of  this  drug,  it  does 
not  appear  safe  to  administer  it  in  doses  exceeding  thirty 
grains,  or  to  repeat  it  ofteuer  than  every  six  or  eight  hours. 
Many  instances  of  its  fatal  operation  have  been  traced  to  the 
continuance  of  its  use  in  gradually  increasing  doses. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  that  have  been  observed  com- 
prise congestion  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  with  exu- 
dations in  the  pia  mater  of  a  sero-gelatinous  character.  In 
one  case  reported,  the  brain  itself  was  pale  and  friable,  with 
injection  only  of  the  choroid  plexus. 

Chemical  properties. — Hydrate  of  chloral  is  a  white,  brittle, 
crystalline  solid,  of  a  peculiar  odor  and  a  pungent,  bitter 
taste.  It  is  not  inflammable.  Heated  on  platinum  it  vola- 
tilizes. It  is  soluble  in  water.  Potassa  added  to  its  boiling 
aqueous  solution  converts  it  instantly  into  chloroform,  which 
escapes  with  effervescence,  and  into  formic  acid,  which  com- 
bines with  the  alkali.  It  decomposes  a  salt  of  copper  like 
grape-sugar. 

Dr.  Liebreich,  of  Berlin,  supposes  that  chloral,  while  cir- 
culating in  the  blood,  undergoes  decomposition  into  chloro- 
form and  formic  acid,  through  the  agency  of  the  alkalies  of 
the  blood.  Following  out  this  idea,  its  physiological  and 
its  therapeutical  action  have  been  by  some  ascribed  to  the 
chloroform  thus  produced. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures,  or  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 
— The  principle  involved  in  the  chemical  analysis  has  refer- 
ence to  the  conversion  of  chloral  into  chloroform  through 
the  agency  of  an  alkali,  as  explained  above.  The  solid 
matters  should  be  properly  divided,  water  added,  if  neces- 
sary, and  the  whole  rendered  alkaline  by  caustic  potassa, 
and  heated  in  a  flask,  after  the  manner  described  under  the 
head  of  CHLOROFORM. 


396  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 


CHAPTER     XXIV. 

OKDER    II.— SPINAL    NEUROTICS,    OR    TETANICS. 
POISONING    BY    NUX   VOMICA. — STRYCHNIA. 

Nux  VOMICA  is  by  far  the  most  important  poison  included 
under  the  Order  of  Tetanics,  or  such  substances  as  primarily 
affect  the  spinal  cord  and  excite  tetanic  convulsions. 

It  is  the  seed  of  the  Strychnos  nux  vomica,  a  tree  growing  in 
India.  Several  seeds  are  inclosed  in  a  yellow  fruit,  which 
is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  orange.  These  seeds  are 
circular  disks,  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  concave  on  one 
surface,  and  convex  on  the  other.  Their  color  externally  is 
light  brown ;  they  are  covered  with  whitish,  silky  hairs, 
radiating  from  the  centre.  The  body  of  the  seed  is  nearly 
white ;  its  texture  is  extremely  hard  and  horny,  which 
renders  it  very  difficult  to  pulverize.  The  interior  of  the 
seed  is  dyed  a  rich  orange-color  when  touched  with  a  drop 
of  nitric  acid,  and  is  tinged  green  by  perchloride  of  iron. 
The  taste  is  intensely  and  persistently  bitter.  It  contains 
two  powerfully-active  alkaloidal  principles — strychnia  and 
brucia,  united  with  igasuric  or  strychnic  acid.  The  quantity  of 
strychnia  has  been  variously  estimated  to  amount  to  from 
one-half  to  one  per  cent,  of  the  seed. 

Nux  vomica  is  officinal  in  the  different  Pharmacopoeias  in 
the  forms  of  the  powder,  extract,  and  tincture.  In  overdoses 
it  acts  as  a  terrific  poison.  The  symptoms,  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances, treatment,  etc.,  will  be  fully  noticed  under  the 
succeeding  paragraph  on  STRYCHNIA.  The  smallest  fatal  dose 
of  nux  vomica  recorded  is  thirty  grains  of  the  powder  (about 
the  weight  of  one  seed),  and  three  grains  of  the  alcoholic 
extract. 

STRYCHNIA. — This  alkaloid  exists  in  several  species  of  the 
Strychnos,  besides  the  S.  nux  vomica  :  it  is  the  poisonous 
principle  of  Strychnos  Ignatia,  or  St.  Ignatius'  bean ;  and  it  is 


POISONING   BY  NUX   VOMICA   AND   STRYCHNIA. — SYMPTOMS.  397 

also  found  in  false  Angustura  bark,  which  is  the  bark  of  S.  nux 
vomica.  Strychnia  is  often  employed  for  the  destruction  of 
wild  and  other  animals.  It  has  frequently  been  the  cause  of 
accidental  and  suicidal  poisoning,  and  of  late  years  its  use 
for  homicidal  poisoning  has  been  decidedly  on  the  increase. 
The  celebrated  Palmer  case,  which  occurred  in  England  in 
1856,  has  brought  it  ver}T  prominently  before  toxicologists. 

This  alkaloid  is  found  in  the  shops  both  as  a  white  powder 
and  in  colorless  crystals.  It  has  several  distinct  crystalline 
forms :  those  most  commonly  seen  are  the  rectangular  prism, 
and  the  octahedron.  If  allowed  to  crystallize  from  a  drop 
of  the  solution  of  the  acetate,  by  exposure  to  the  vapor  of 
ammonia,  it  is  exhibited  usually  in  the  form  of  well-marked, 
lengthened  prisms,  which  cross  one  another  at  an  angle  of 
60°.  If  allowed  to  crystallize  from  an  ethereal  or  chloro- 
form solution  on  a  glass  slide,  a  variety  of  forms  will  be 
noticed,  such  as  prisms,  rosettes,  plumose  leaves,  crosslets, 
and  stellate  needles.  The  fact  of  the  diversity  of  the  crys- 
talline forms  of  strychnia  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the 
toxicologist,  lest  an  undue  importance  be  given  to  this  branch 
of  the  investigation  in  a  criminal  case.  The  special  chem- 
ical characters  of  strychnia  will  be  described  hereafter. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  occasioned  by  nux  vomica  and 
strychnia  are  similar  in  kind,  though  they  vary  somewhat  in 
the  rapidity  of  their  development,  which  is  doubtless  owing 
to  a  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  their  absorption.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  symptoms  appear  soonest  after  taking  strych- 
nia. In  either  case,  after  the  ingestion  of  a  large  dose,  the 
individual  first  experiences  a  feeling  of  general  uneasiness  and 
restlessness,  with  a  sense  of  impending  suffocation,  and  of  a 
want  of  air;  very  soon  twitching  of  the  muscles  and  jerking 
movements  of  the  limbs  and  head  come  on.  These  are  fol- 
lowed suddenly  by  a  violent  tetanic  convulsion,  which  may 
pervade  the  w^hole  body ;  the  legs  are  stretched  out  stiffly 
and  involuntarily,  widely  separated  from  each  other,  and  the 
feet  arched,  and  usually  incurvated  or  turned  inwards.  The 
arms  are  flexed,  and  tightly  drawn  across  the  chest ;  the  head 
is  rigidly  bent  back,  and  the  whole  body  arched  backwards, 
so  as  to  rest  upon  the  head  and  heels  (opislholonos).  As  the 

26 


398  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

muscles  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  are  rigidly  contracted, 
the  respiratory  movements  become  arrested ;  the  face  is  con- 
gested and  livid,  especially  about  the  lips ;  the  eyes  promi- 
nent and  staring;  the  pupils  dilated;  the  muscles  about  the 
mouth  contracted  to  such  an  extent  as  to  impart  a  ghastly 
expression  to  the  face  (risus  sardonicus) ;  the  pulse  is  extremely 
rapid  and  feeble.  Sometimes  there  is  foaming  at  the  mouth, 
and  the  froth  may  occasionally  be  tinged  with  blood.  During 
all  this  time  the  intellect  remains  perfectly  clear;  the  patient 
experiences  the  most  intense  suffering,  gasping  for  breath, 
and  seeking  in  vain  for  relief  in  asking  to  be  turned  over,  or 
moved,  or  held.  The  jaws  are  not  always  fixed  during  a 
paroxysm;  the  patient  may  hence  be  able  to  speak,  and,  as 
great  thirst  is  one  of  the  prominent  effects  of  the  poison,  he 
may  ask  for  water,  but  the  attempt  to  swallow  it  is  very  apt 
to  intensify  the  spasm,  as  in  the  case  of  hydrophobia,  or  to 
reproduce  it  if  there  is  an  interval  of  calm. 

The  paroxysm  may  last  from  half  a  minute  to  two  or  more 
minutes,  when  complete  relaxation  takes  place;  the  patient 
feeling  exhausted,  and  being  often  bathed  in  perspiration. 
In  some  cases,  the  pupils,  which  were  dilated  during  the 
paroxysm,  contract  during  the  intermission.  After  a  little 
time,  varying  from  a  few  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  the  fit 
returns :  it  is  usually  preceded  by  a  sense  of  the  impending 
danger,  the  special  senses  being  exceedingly  acute.  The 
spasm  may  be  brought  on  by  the  slightest  cause,  such  as  an 
attempt  to  move,  a  current  of  air  from  fanning,  a  sudden 
noise,  a  mere  gentle  touching  of  the  patient.  Often  it  comes 
on  without  any  apparent  cause.  In  some  instances  the  vio- 
lence of  the  tetanic  seizure  has  been  such  as  to  jerk  the 
patient  off  the  bed.  In  a  case  likely  to  prove  fatal,  the  par- 
oxysms increase  both  in  frequency  and  violence,  until  at  last 
death  ensues,  either  from  asphyxia,  the  patient  dying  in  a 
paroxysm,  or  from  apuoea,  death  occurring  during  the  in- 
termission, from  pure  exhaustion. 

As  already  stated,  the  intellect  remains  perfectly  clear 
throughout  the  attack,  except,  in  some  instances,  just  before 
death,  where  the  brain  may  have  become  clouded  from  the 
effects  of  the  asphyxia.  The  patient  usually  has  a  vivid  ap- 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — SYMPTOMS.  399 

prehension  of  dissolution,  as  likewise  of  suffering,  and  while 
anticipating  the  approach  of  a  paroxysm  he  will  frequently 
ask  to  be  held.  As  a  general  rule,  when  the  paroxysms  of 
strychnia-poisoning  are  once  established,  they  progress  either 
towards  a  fatal  termination  or  a  cure,  within  two  hours  of 
the  seizure.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
which  will  be  alluded  to  hereafter. 

The  time  of  the  first  manifestation  of  the  symptoms  varies  from 
a  few  minutes  to  several  hours  :  the  average  may  perhaps  be 
stated  to  be  from  fifteen  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  A  number 
of  cases  are  recorded  illustrating  both  extremes.  Thus, 
Dr.  Gr.  H.  Barker  reports  (Araer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1864, 
p.  399)  the  case  of  a  young  healthy  married  woman,  to  whofti 
had  been  administered,  with  criminal  intent,  not  over  six 
grains  of  strychnia:  violent  symptoms  were  present  in  three 
minutes,  and  death  took  place,  in  a  convulsion,  in  half  an 
hour  after  taking  the  poison.  This  is  believed  to  be  the 
most  rapid  case,  in  regard  to  symptoms,  on  record.  In  Dr. 
"Warner's  case,  who  took,  it  is  supposed,  less  than  half  a 
grain,  the  symptoms  were  manifested  in  five  minutes,  and 
death  occurred  in  about  eighteen  minutes.  In  a  case  men- 
tioned in  the  Auuales  d'Hygiene,  1861,  i.  p.  133,  convulsions 
came  on  in  fii'e  minutes.  On  the  other  hand,  this  interval 
may  be  protracted  for  two  or  three  hours.  Dr.  T.  Anderson 
reports  (Amer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  April,  1848,  p.  562)  the  case 
of  a  gentleman  who  took  in  mistake  three  grains  and  a  half 
of  strychnia,  and  experienced  no  particular  symptoms  for 
two  hours  and  a  half,  when  he  suddenly  fell  backwards;  but, 
on  being  immediately  raised,  he  was  able  to  walk  home. 
He  soon  felt  better,  and  in  five  hours  after  taking  the  dose 
he  repeated  it.  In  ten  minutes  afterwards,  he  was  seized 
with  violent  tetanic  spasms,  which  continued,  with  inter- 
missions, for  several  hours,  after  which  he  finally  recovered. 
Undoubtedly,  the  form  in  which  the  poison  is  administered 
will  have  considerable  influence  on  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  symptoms  will  be  developed.  This  is  shown  in  a  case 
cited  by  Dr.  Taylor  (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p. 
405),  that  of  a  boy,  aged  twelve  years,  who  swallowed  a 
pill  containing  three  grains  of  strychnia,  in  whom  no  symp- 


400  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

toms  were  shown  for  three  hours  ;  they  then  set  in  in  the  usual 
way,  and  death  took  place  in  ten  minutes.  The  pill  had 
been  prepared  with  muoilage,  eight  months  before,  and  was 
consequently  hard  and  difficult  to  dissolve.  In  the  celebrated 
Palmer  case,  Cook  took  two  pills  containing  strychnia:  no 
symptoms  were  observed  for  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  after 
which  death  occurred  in  twenty  minutes.  It  is  unnecessary 
further  to  multiply  examples  of  this  diversity  in  the  length 
of  time  before  the  exhibition  of  the  8}'mptoms  of  strychnia- 
poisoning:  although  the  delay, may  often  be  ascribed  to  the 
form  in  which  the  poison  is  administered,  there  are  cases  in 
which  the  unusual  delay  cannot  thus  be  accounted  for,  but 
where  it  must  be  referred  to  some  individual  peculiarity  of 
the  patient. 

Dr.  Wormley  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  40)  mentions  a 
case  (recorded  in  the  Chicago  Med.  Jour.,  Nov.,  1860)  where 
the  remarkable  postponement  of  the  appearance  of  the  usual 
symptoms  seemed  to  be  owing  to  the  effects  of  large  doses 
of  opium  taken  simultaneously.  Three  grains  of  strychnia, 
a  drachm  of  opium,  and  an  indefinite  quantity  of  quinine 
were  taken  at  the  same  time.  No  symptoms  of  any  kind 
appear  to  have  been  observed  for  tivelve  hours  ;  and  then  they 
partook  of  a  mixed  character,  slight  tremblings  alternating 
with  cerebral  symptoms.  Another  remarkable  case  is  re- 
ported in  the  "American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences," 
January,  1863,  p.  259.  A  young  druggist,  with  suicidal  intent, 
at  half-past  eight  o'clock  at  night,  swallowed  between  eight 
and  ten  grains  of  strychnia  in  an  ounce  of  bitter  almond 
water.  A  little  later,  he  took  an  additional  dose  of  twelve 
grains  of  strychnia.  Feeling  nothing  peculiar,  he  took,  at 
nine  o'clock,  ten  grains  of  acetate  of  morphia  dissolved  in 
an  ounce  of  bitter  almond  water,  and  then  lay  down  in  bed. 
Ten  minutes  later,  to  hasten  his  death,  he  poured  chloroform 
on  his  pillow.  Partial  insensibility  now  manifested  itself, 
and  continued  for  about  an  hour  and  a  half,  when  he  was 
seized  with  violent  cramps  and  cessation  of  respiration,  but 
without  pain.  Loss  of  consciousness  then  supervened,  but 
he  soon  revived  and  had  another  attack  of  convulsions. 
Emetics  and  taunic  acid  were  now  administered,  and  two 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — FATAL   DOSF.  401 

days  afterwards  no  trace  of  poisoning  remained.  In  both 
the  above  instances  we  must  suppose  that  the  ordinary  im- 
pressions of  strychnia  were  undoubtedly  modified  and,  so  to 
speak,  held  in  abeyance  by  the  powerful  doses  of  the  nar- 
cotic taken  along  with  it.  Nevertheless,  in  some  experiments 
of  our  own  on  animals,  with  strychnia  and  morphia  combined, 
the  latter  poison,  far  from  antagonizing  the  former,  appeared 
rather  to  intensify  it  (see  ante,  p.  96). 

If  the  poison  be  injected  subcutaneously,  or  even  applied 
to  the  healthy  mucous  tissue,  its  effects  are  manifested  much 
more  speedily.  Dr.  Shuler  relates  a  case  of  amaurosis,  in 
which  about  one-twelfth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  was  intro- 
duced into  the  corner  of  the  eye.  In  three  or  four  minutes 
symptoms  of  poisoning  appeared,  such  as  convulsive  respi- 
ration, violent  tetanic  shocks,  and  an  appearance  of  impend- 
ing death.  The  patient,  however,  ultimately  recovered.  (Med. 
Times  and  Gazette,  July,  1861.) 

Some  interesting  clinical  experiments  of  Prof.  J.  J.  Chis- 
olm,  of  Baltimore,  with  strychnia  on  patients  affected  with 
amaurosis,  show  very  conclusively  that  the  human  system 
speedily  acquires  a  remarkable  tolerance  of  this  substance. 
Finding  that  doses  of  strychnia  which  at  first  were  beneficial 
in  this  form  of  disordered  vision  soon  ceased  to  be  effective, 
Dr.  Chisolm  was  led  to  augment  the  quantity  gradually,  until 
he  reached  the  large  amount  of  half  a  grain  per  diem,  given 
in  three  separate  doses.  It  was  also  ascertained  that  as 
regards  this  tolerance  of  the  drug  it  makes  no  difference 
whether  it  is  administered  hypodermically  or  by  the  stomach. 
(Amer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  April,  1872,  p.  342.) 

Fatal  dose. — The  susceptibility  of  different  individuals  to 
the  action  of  strychnia  varies  greatly,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
poisons.  The  average  medicinal  dose  is  one-sixteenth  of  a 
grain  :  it  is  customary  to  commence  with  a  rather  less  quan- 
tity, and  gradually  increase  it  up  to  one-twelfth  or  one-eighth 
of  a  grain.  According  to  Taylor,  one-sixteenth  of  a  grain 
has  proved  fatal  to  a  child  between  two  and  three  years  old, 
in  four  hours.  Dr.  G.  B.  Wood  mentions  the  case  of  a 
lady  who  was  thrown  into  alarming  spasms,  almost  threat- 
ening suffocation,  by  one -twelfth  of  a  grain  (Therapeutics, 


402  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

vol.  i.  p.  834).  Wormley  cites  another  instance  reported  by 
M.  Duriau,  where  one-sixth  of  a  grain,  taken  by  a  woman 
aged  twenty-eight  years,  produced,  ten  minutes  afterwards, 
violent  tetanic  convulsions,  in  which  the  whole  body  became 
rigid;  these  continued  at  intervals,  and  were  succeeded  by 
a  sense  of  burning  in  the  epigastrium  and  pharynx  and 
great  irritability  of  the  stomach,  which  lasted  for  six  weeks 
(loc.  cit.,  p.  542).  The  smallest  fatal  dose  for  an  adult  (where 
a  record  has  been  kept)  is  half  a  grain — in  the  case  of  Dr. 
Warner.  Prof.  Guy  states  that  "a  quarter  of  a  grain  may 
destroy  life,"  without,  however,  specifying  the  age  of  the 
subject.  Dr.  Ogston  reports  a  case  where  three-quarters  of  a 
gram  killed  a  man  in  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Instances 
are  numerous  in  which  death  has  resulted  from  a  grain  and 
upwards  of  this  poison.  A  fatal  dose  of  strychnia  for  an 
adult  may  be  stated  to  be  from  half  a  grain  to  a  grain. 

It  would  appear,  from  some  recorded  instances,  that  this 
poison  possesses  somewhat  of  a  cumulative  power.  It  is, 
however,  more  probable  that  after  the  system  has  become, 
as  it  were,  saturated  with  the  drug,  from  its  continued  use  in 
small  doses,  a  very  slight  increase  of  the  dose  may  develop 
alarming  symptoms. 

On  the  other  hand,  numerous  recoveries  have  occurred 
after  swallowing  very  large  doses  of  strychnia,  sometimes 
with,  and  sometimes  without,  any  antidote.  In  the  "  Lan- 
cet," for  1863,  i.  p.  54,  Dr.  Angell  describes  the  case  of  a 
girl  who  recovered  in  six  or  seven  hours  from  a  dose  of  four 
grains  of  strychnia.  Her  convulsions  were  very  violent,  with 
difficult  respiration,  and  fear  of  impending  death.  She  had 
only  three  paroxysms.  Another  instance  of  recovery,  after 
taking  seven  grains,  is  given  in  the  "  Medical  Gazette,"  vol. 
xli.  p.  305.  Whartori  and  Stille  quote  three  cases  of  recovery 
after  four  grains  of  the  poison  had  been  swallowed  (Med. 
Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  575).  Prof.  Wormley  mentions  an  in- 
stance related  by  Dr.  Givens,  where  a  young  man  swallowed, 
with  suicidal  intent,  two  large  pills  containing  not  less  than 
ten  or  twelve  grains  of  strychnia.  Violent  convulsions  set  in, 
which,  however,  subsided  in  seven  hours,  but  leaving  the 
patient  in  a  prostrate  condition,  from  which  he  entirely 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — FATAL   PERIOD.  403 

recovered  in  a  week.  Very  early  vomiting  had  occurred  in 
this  case,  to  which  the  immunity  may  have  been  due.  Dr. 
"Wilson  has  reported  a  case  (Amer.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  July, 
1864,  p.  70)  where  a  young  man,  aged  twenty-two  years,  re- 
covered in  fifteen  hours,  although  he  was  believed  to  have 
taken  forty  grains  of  strychnia.  Early  vomiting  also  occurred 
in  this  case.  In  these  instances,  where  excessive  doses  have 
been  taken,  there  is  strong  reason  for  believing  that  the 
poison  was  not  of  full  strength,  but  was  probably  adulterated 
with  some  inert  substance. 

Fatal  period. — This,  like  the  fatal  dose,  is  liable  to  a  con- 
siderable variation.  In  the  case  of  Dr.  Warner,  already 
mentioned,  death  occurred  in  about  eighteen  minutes,  after 
taking  not  over  half  a  grain  of  strychnia.  Dr.  Taylor  records 
two  cases — those  of  a  man  and  wife — that  occurred  in  Bel- 
gium, in  1870,  of  still  more  rapid  death.  The  husband  died 
in  a  quarter  of  an.  hour  after  taking  seven  grains  and  a  half 
of  what  he  supposed  to  be  chloride  of  morphia,  but  which 
proved  to  be  largely  mixed  with  strychnia ;  and  the  wife,  who 
took  a  similar  dose,  died  in  ten  minutes.  Dr.  J.  Gray  refers 
to  a  case  which  proved  fatal  in  jive  minutes.  In  Dr.  Barker's 
case,  already  alluded  to,  six  grains  caused  death  in  thirty 
minutes ;  and  in  Dr.  Theinhart's  case  (Amer.  Jour,  of  Med. 
Sci.;  Jan.,  1848,  p.  303),  thirty  grains  of  the  poison  proved 
fatal  in  half  an  hour.  • 

On  the  other  hand,  life  has  been  prolonged,  even  after 
taking  large  doses,  for  several  hours.  In  the  case  of  Cook, 
.poisoned  by  Palmer,  death  occurred  in  about  an  hour  and  a 
quarter  after  swallowing  the  poison.  In  a  case  reported  to  Dr. 
Taylor  by  Mr.  "VVilkins,  death  did  not  take  place  until  six  hours 
after  taking  three  grains.  In  a  case  of  a  woman  examined  by 
the  author,  in  1861,  death  did  not  occur  until  after  six  hours 
after  swallowing  six  grains  of  strychnia.  (See  report  of  this 
case  in  Amer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1861,  p.  409.)  These  two 
last-mentioned  cases  are  probably  the  longest  on  record,  as 
regards  the  fatal  period.  In  the  majority  of  instances  the 
poison  destroys  life  within  two  hours. 

In  poisoning  by  mix  vomica,  death  may  occur  within  two 
hours;  but  a  case  is  reported  by  Christison  in  which  a  man 


404  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

died  in  fifteen  minutes  after  taking  a  dose.  This  is  probably 
the  shortest  period  known. 

Treatment. — Prompt  and  free  emesis  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. Copious  draughts  of  warm  mustard  and  water, 
or  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  ipecac,  answer  well  for 
this  purpose;  or  the  stomach-pump  may  be  resorted  to.  On 
account  of  the  rigidity  of  the  jaws  and  the  difficulty  of  swal- 
lowing, it  maybe  impossible  to  get  anything  down  the  throat; 
the  attempt  to  do  so  often  bringing  on  a  convulsion.  We  would 
strongly  recommend  the  employment  of  chloroform  by  in- 
halation in  all  these  cases.  Numerous  recoveries  under  its 
use  attest  its  great  value.  Dr.  Clark  (Buffalo  Med.  and  Surg. 
Jour.,  Nov.,  1866,  p.  135)  reports  the  case  of  a  man  laboring 
under  delirium  tremens,  who  swallowed  over  twenty  grains 
of  strychnia:  there  was  early  vomiting,  and  the  patient  was 
kept  under  the  constant  use  of  chloroform  for  eight  consecu- 
tive hours,  during  which  time  all  attempts  to  suspend  its  use 
were  attended  by  a  recurrence  of  the  symptoms.  In  eigh- 
teen hours  he  was  convalescent.  Dr.  Dresbach,  of  Ohio,  who 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  administer  chloroform  in 
poisoning  by  strychnia,  gave  two  drachms  internally  to  a 
man  who,  by  mistake,  had  swallowed  a  solution  containing 
three  grains  of  the  poison,  and  who  had  most  violent  symp- 
toms in  twenty  minutes.  There  was  complete  relief  in  less 
than  twenty  minutes  afterwards.  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci., 
April,  1850,  p.  546.)  A  case  is  also  mentioned  in  the  "  United 
States  Dispensatory,"  1865,  p.  1357,  where  a  young  man  took 
four  grains  of  strychnia,  and  had  most  violent  tetanic  spasms. 
Complete  recovery  took  place  under  the  use  of  chloroform, 
administered  by  inhalation  and  by  the  stomach.  The  patient 
was  kept  under  its  influence  for  thirteen  consecutive  hours, 
during  which  time  two  pounds  of  the  anaesthetic  were  con- 
sumed by  inhalation. 

Another  physiological  antidote  is  bromide  of  potassium. 
From  the  known  efficacy  of  this  drug  in  controlling  ordinary 
convulsions,  it  might  be  inferred  that  it  would  exert  some 
power  over  strychnia-convulsions.  Many  instances  of  its 
influence  over  the  latter  might  be  cited.  Dr.  C.  B.  Gillespie, 
of  Freeport,  Pa.,  reports  the  case  of  a  man  who,  after  swal- 


POISONING    BY   STRYCHNIA. — TREATMENT.  405 

lowing  fully  two  grains  and  a  half  of  strychnia,  in  about 
two  hours  was  seized  with  the  usual  tetanic  spasms  and  other 
symptoms  pertaining  to  this  poison.  After  administering  a 
teaspoonful  of  tincture  of  hyoscyamus  (the  only  medicine  at 
hand),  eighty  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium,  dissolved  in 
half  an  ounce  of  water,  were  given  to  him  every  half-hour. 
The  paroxysms  gradually  became  less  violent  and  frequent, 
and  had  entirely  ceased  by  the  time  the  last  dose  was  taken. 
In  thirty-six  hours  he  had  completely  recovered.  (Amer. 
Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1870,  p.  420.)  Another  instance  in 
which  the  bromide  of  potassium  seemed  to  act  antidotally 
is  related  by  Dr.  W.  W.  Hewlett,  of  Babylon,  L.I.  (N.  Y. 
Med.  Jour.,  March,  1871).  A  farmer,  aged  thirty  years, 
took,  by  mistake,  five  grains  of  strychnia  at  night,  immedi- 
ately after  which  he  went  to  bed,  and  slept  for  two  hours  : 
he  then  awoke  "  feeling  very  much  confused."  Pains  in  the 
abdomen,  with  twitchings  of  the  limbs,  ensued,  which  were 
soon  followed  by  violent  tetanic  convulsions.  As  he  was  of 
intemperate  habits,  and  had  been  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
elixir  of  opium,  his  friends  gave  him  this  medicine,  suppos- 
ing his  spasms  were  owing  to  drink.  He  took  six  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  it  in  the  course  of  two  hours.  Nausea  and  vomiting 
soon  ensued,  after  which  he  felt  better,  and  remained  quiet 
for  two  hours.  The  convulsions  now  returned,  and  so  con- 
tinued alternately,  with  vomiting  artificially  excited,  until 
five  o'clock  next  morning.  At  this  time  the  convulsions  had 
returned  with  great  violence.  As  a  dernier  ressort,  bromide 
of  potassium  was  ordered,  in  doses  of  ninety  grains  and  up- 
wards, every  half-hour.  In  twenty  minutes  after  taking  the 
first  dose,  the  improvement  was  perceptible.  The  bromide 
was  then  given  in  drachm  doses,  every  hour;  but  the  con- 
vulsions coming  on  again  with  greater  severity,  the  remedy 
was  given  every  fifteen  minutes,  for  one  hour.  Again  he 
felt  better.  The  bromide  was  now  administered  in  smaller 
doses  for  a  day  and  a  half.  In  thirty-six  hours  after  taking 
the  poison  he  was  able  to  walk  about,  feeling  a  little  weak, 
and  occasionally  a  slight  twitch. 

A  few  cases  have  been  put  on  record  in  which  hydrate  of 
chloral  has  been  successfully  used  in  the  treatment  of  strych- 


406  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

ma-poisoning.  In  the  "  Glasgow  Medical  Journal"  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1871,  Dr.  J.  St.  Clair  Gray  gives  the  results  of  numer- 
ous experiments  made  with  various  alleged  antidotes  for 
strychnia,  on  the  lower  animals.  After  alluding  to  chloro- 
form, Calabar  bean,  woorara,  and  chloral,  as  the  substances 
most  likely  to  neutralize  the  effects  of  strychnia,  though 
admitting  their  inefficacy  if  administered  after  the  accession 
of  the  tetanic  spasms,  he  suggests  the  trial  of  nitrite  of  ainyl 
as  being  well  worthy  of  confidence  in  a  case  of  strychnia- 
poisoning  in  man.  In  his  hands  it  proved  more  efficacious 
(although  by  no  means  always  successful)  than  any  of  the 
other  reputed  antidotes. 

The  latest  proposed  antidote  is  atropia,  which  appears  to 
exercise  a  true  antagonizing  effect  over  strychnia.  Mr.  S. 
Buckley  relates  (Edin.  Med.  Jour.,  Sept.,  1873)  an  interesting 
case  of  this  in  a  woman,  aged  twenty-eight,  who  had  taken, 
at  4  P.M.,  an  unknown  quantity  of  strychnia.  When  brought 
to  the  Manchester  infirmary,  half  an  hour  afterwards,  she 
was  in  a  state  of  perfect  opisthotonos ;  the  spasms  painful 
and  severe,  and  the  intervals  short.  After  chloroform  had 
been  administered  ineffectually,  atropia  was  given  in  repeated 
small  doses,  with  remarkable  benefit.  The  patient  ultimately 
recovered.  (See  post,  ATROPIA,  for  fuller  details  of  this  case.) 

Among  other  reputed  antidotes,  tobacco  has  been  recom- 
mended. This  substance,  originally  proposed  by  Prof.  Haugh- 
ton,  of  Oxford,  on  physiological  principles,  has  been  fully 
tried,  by  various  authorities,  but  without  encouraging  results. 
For  the  purpose  of  testing  its  antidotal  powers,  Prof.  Worm- 
ley  made  thirteen  experiments  upon  cats,  administering  to 
each  animal  half  a  grain  of  strychnia,  along  with  an  infusion 
of  twenty  grains  of  tobacco,  and  in  some  instances  repeating 
the  latter  substance.  As  the  result  of  these  experiments,  all 
the  animals,  with  a  single  exception,  died,  and,  in  most  in- 
stances, within  the  usual  period.  In  some  of  the  cases  the 
strychnia-symptoms  did  not  appear  to  be  at  all  modified  by 
the  tobacco ;  while  in  others  they  were  of  a  complex  charac- 
ter, indicating  the  action  of  both  the  toxic  agents.  In  the 
exceptional  case  mentioned,  the  animal  that  had  taken  the 
mixed  poisons,  after  vomiting,  and  exhibiting  some  stiffness 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — MORBID   LESIONS.  407 

of  gait,  appeared  to  have  completely  recovered  in  the  course 
of  an  hour.  These  negative  results  with  tobacco  are  entirely 
confirmed  by  our  own  experiments  made  on  dogs,  and  re- 
ported in  the  "American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences," 
April,  1871,  p.  382,  et  seq.  In  some  of  these  there  did  not 
seem  to  be  the  slightest  antagonizing  influence  exerted  by 
it;  and  in  one  only  did  the  toxic  impression  of  strychnia 
appear  to  be  at-  all  modified  by  the  tobacco.  In  the  latter 
instance,  although  some  controlling  influence  was  undoubt- 
edly exerted,  it  could  hardly  be  said  to  amount  to  an  antago- 
nism, since  the  final  fatal  symptoms  were  those  of  strychnia. 
As  regards  the  antidotal  powers  of  tincture  of  chloride  of  iron, 
tincture  of  iodine,  and  aconitia,  with  all  of  which  we  have  ex- 
perimented on  dogs,  we  have  not  found  them  to  yield  any 
results  that  would  entitle  them  to  confidence.  (See  paper 
above  referred  to,  p.  385.) 

Finally,  in  relation  to  the  alleged  powers  of  tannic  acid, 
animal  charcoal,  iodo-iodide  of  potassium,  camphor,  etc.,  no  reli- 
ance whatever  should  be  placed  upon  them  as  antidotes. 
Doubtless,  recoveries  have  occurred  both  in  man  and  in  ani- 
mals, from  poisonous  doses  of  strychnia,  after  taking  the 
above-named  substances;  but  certainly  in  no  authentic  in- 
stance without  early  and  free  vomiting  of  the  poison. 

Post-mortem  signs. — The  characters  furnished  by  the  autopsy 
are  not  always  similar,  nor  are  they  by  any  means  character- 
istic. Nevertheless,  as  remarked  by  Tardieu,  although  there 
may  be  no  positive  signs  by  which  to  identify  the  case,  certain 
negative  signs  may  be  deduced  that  are  not  without  value, 
when  these  are  compared  with  the  symptoms  exhibited  during 
life.  Probably  the  lesions  most  commonly  observed  are 
congestion  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  and  sometimes 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  with  engorgement  of  the 
lungs,  and  a  dark  and  fluid  condition  of  the  blood.  The 
heart  is  sometimes  empty  and  contracted;  at  other  times  it  is 
partially  empty  and  flaccid.  The  urinary  bladder  is  empty. 
Congestion  of  the  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys  has  also  been 
observed.  As  usually  viewed  after  death,  the  body  is  in  an 
exceedingly  rigid  state.  Although  the  individual  may  have 
died  in  a  frightful  tetanic  convulsion,  there  is  a  universal 


408  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

muscular  relaxation,  immediately  after  death ;  this,  at  least,  is 
the  general  rule  (it  uniformly  occurs  in  animals  poisoned  by 
strychnia);  but  very  soon — in  animals  as  well  as  in  man — 
cadaveric  rigidity  sets  in,  and  is  very  persistent.  We  have 
known  it  to  be  exhibited  in  a  marked  degree  six  weeks  after 
death.  Along  with  the  rigidity  of  the  body,  there  is  usually 
noticed  a  livid  appearance  about  the  mouth  and  tongue,  also 
of  the  fingers  and  toes;  both  the  latter  are  tightly  flexed. 
As  regards  the  alimentary  canal,  nothing  whatever  of  a  dis- 
tinctive character  is  shown.  It  should  be  remembered  by 
those  who  might  be  led  to  attach  an  undue  weight  to  the 
congested  state  of  the  cerebral  and  spinal  vessels,  that  pre- 
cisely such  lesions  are  seen  as  the  result  of  various  disorders 
of  the  cerebro-spinal  cord,  and  which,  moreover,  may  have 
been  attended  with  tetanic  convulsions  (Abercrombie).  "We  there- 
fore must  infer  that  before  a  diagnosis  of  strychnia-poisoning 
can  be  established  exclusively  from  the  lesions,  or  even  from 
the  symptoms  conjoined  (unless  the  latter  possess  all  the 
striking  characteristic  marks),  the  absence  of  all  disease  of 
the  spinal  cord  must  first  be  unequivocally  proved. 

Diagnosis. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  an  expert, 
summoned  to  pronounce  upon  the  reality  of  a  case  of  alleged 
strychnia-poisoning,  should  have  clear  and  definite  ideas  in 
relation  to  the  symptoms  presented  during  life,  inasmuch  as 
these,  along  with  the  moral  evidences,  may  constitute  the 
sole  proof  that  can  be  offered  in  the  case.  We  shall  see 
hereafter  that  there  may  be  an  entire  absence  of  chemn-'i.l 
proof.  In  the  celebrated  Palmer  case,  in  England,  this  ques- 
tion was  most  thoroughly  sifted  by  both  sides.  Indeed,  this 
very  case  affords  an  illustration  of  just  the  sort  of  difficulties 
that  present  themselves  in  forming  a  correct  appreciation  of 
these  symptoms.  The  only  real  difficulty  consists  in  properly 
discriminating  between  the  symptoms  of  the  poison  and  those 
of  disease.  In  the  Palmer  trial,  the  defense  brought  for- 
ward a  large  number  of  diseases  which,  as  remarked  by 
Tardieu,  "  have  but  a  faint  resemblance  to,  and  often  a 
complete  diversity  from,  the  characteristic  phenomena  of 
strychnia-poisoning."  Among  those  cited  on  the  occasion 
mentioned  were  delirium  tremens,  eclampsia,  hysteria,  epi- 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — DIAGNOSIS.  409 

lepsy,  apoplexy,  angina  pectoris,  and  even  syphilis!  The 
only  diseases  whose  symptoms  could  by  any  possibility  be 
mistaken  for  those  occasioned  by  strychnia  are  tetanus,  in  its 
varieties  of  traumatic,  idiopathic,  and  hysterical,  and  possibly 
some  forms  of  epilepsy.  Let  us  briefly  examine  the  differen- 
tial signs  of  these  disorders. 

Tetanus  constitutes  the  really  important  disorder  whose 
symptoms  might  be  possibly  confounded  with  those  of 
strychnia.  If  the  expert  were  obliged  to  decide  solely  from 
the  convulsion — apart  from  its  mode  of  invasion  and  seizure, 
its  duration  and  termination,  the  condition  of  the  intervals 
between  the  paroxysms,  in  fine,  apart  from  the  whole  history 
of  the  attack — he  might  be  unable  to  discriminate  between 
the  disease  and  the  poisoning.  But  where  a  careful  exami- 
nation of  all  these  attending  circumstances  has  been  insti- 
tuted, there  can  be  no  possible  difficulty  in  reaching  a  satis- 
factory conclusion.  The  really  distinctive  characters  are 
the  following:  (1)  In  traumatic  tetanus,  the  history  of  the 
case,  as  being  connected  with  some  injury,  such  as  a  lace- 
rated or  contused  wound,  involving  tendons,  nerves,  fasciae, 
and  aponeuroses,  will  always  throw  sufficient  light  on  the 
case  to  admit  of  an  easy  diagnosis;  but  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  a  very  trifling  injury  (apparently),  such  as  a  small 
splinter  of  wood  getting  beneath  the  fascia  of  a  limb,  or  the 
accidental  insertion  of  a  nail  into  the  hand  or  foot,  may  after 
the  lapse  of  several  days  bring  on  this  frightful  disorder, 
while  the  patient  in  the  mean  time  has  entirely  forgotten 
the  real  cause.  Such  a  case  might  possibly  be  mistaken  for 
idiopathic  tetanus.  As  regards  the  latter  form  of  this  disorder 
(idiopathic),  the  first  point  to  be  noticed  is  its  extreme  rarity, 
especially  in  temperate  climates;  secondly,  its  mode  of  inva- 
sion (as  likewise  that  of  traumatic  tetanus),  the  duration  of 
the  attack,  and  the  character  of  the  symptoms  are  entirely 
different  from  those  of  strychnia-poisoning.  In  idiopathic 
tetanus,  according  to  Bouillaud,  Valleix,  and  Gimelle,  there 
are  always  certain  prodromes,  such  as  chills,  faintiness,  in- 
somnia, vertigo,  headache,  and  painful  tension  about  the 
diaphragm,  which  may  last  several  days.  These,  of  course, 
are  entirely  wanting  in  poisoning  by  strychnia;  and  they 


410  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

never  can  be  mistaken  for  the  agitation  and  general  uneasi- 
ness which  precede,  for  only  a  few  minutes,  the  sudden  out- 
burst of  convulsions,  in  the  case  of  the  poison.  Thirdly,  the 
first  phenomena  that  characterize  the  invasion  of  tetanus  are 
the  painful  stiffness  of  the  neck  and  jaws,  and  a  difficulty  of 
moving  the  head  ;  then,  after  some  passing  convulsions  over 
the  different  muscles  of  the  body,  the  rigidity  spreads  gen- 
erally to  the  trunk,  and  thence  to  the  limbs.  In  some 
instances  the  contractions -reach  their  greatest  intensity  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours;  in  others,  some  days  elapse  before  thia 
takes  place.  In  contrast  with  this  picture,  a  case  of  strychnia- 
poisoning  presents  the  following  points.  Instead  of  the 
gradual  development  of  the  rigid  spasms  observed  in  the 
case  of  tetanus,  and  commencing  always  in  the  muscles  of 
the  neck  and  jaw  (trismus),  we  have,  in  poisoning,  a  sud- 
den tetanic  seizure  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  simulta- 
neously. Here,  the  violent  spasmodic  contraction  of  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  back,  which  jerks  back  and  fixes 
the  head  as  in  a  vise,  and  which  arches  the  back  like  a  rigid 
bow,  can  scarcely  be  confounded  with  the  slow  and  gradual 
progress  of  the  convulsions  of  the  disease.  Again,  while  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  jaw  are  never  the  first  to  be  affected 
in  strychnia-poisoning,  but  are  often  the  very  last  to  be 
tetanized,  the  reverse  is  always  the  case  in  the  disease,  the 
trismus  being  the  first  indication  of  its  approach.  A  fourth 
distinction  is  founded  on  the  further  progress  of  the  two 
cases :  whilst  the  violent  and  universal  spasm  produced  by 
strychnia  lasts  from  half  a  minute  to  one  or  two  minutes, 
and  is  then  followed  by  complete  relaxation  and  absolute 
calm,  in  tetanus,  on  the  contrary,  the  rigidity  of  the  affected 
parts  is  generally  permanent,  and  if  there  be  exacerbations, 
the  intervals  never  exhibit  the  character  of  the  complete 
intermission  witnessed  in  the  poisoning.  Fifthly,  the  termi- 
nation of  the  cases  is  widely  different :  a  case  of  idiopathic 
tetanus  never  terminates  fatally  in  two  or  three  hours  ;  but 
several  days  usually  elapse  before  this  event.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  a  case  of  poisoning,  after  three  or  four  rapidly- 
recurring  paroxysms,  death  may  occur  in  a  period  varying 
from  less  than  half  an  hour  to  two  hours :  as  a  rule,  recovery 


POISONING   BY   STKYCHNIA. — DIAGNOSIS.  411 

may  be  expected  if  the  patient  survives  the  last-mentioned 
period. 

Dr.  L.  Starr  reports  a  case  of  traumatic  tetanus  fatal  in  less 
than  twelve  hours  after  the  first  appearance  of  muscular 
twitchings,  and  within  one  hour  and  a  half  after  the  first  con- 
vulsion (Phil.  Med.  Times,  vol.  iii.  p.  311).  A  still  more 
rapid  development  of  symptoms  occurred  in  the  remarkable 
case  witnessed  by  Prof.  Robinson,  of  Edinburgh, — that  of  a 
negro  who  lacerated  his  thumb  by  the  accidental  fracture 
of  a  china  dish.  He  was  seized  with  convulsions  almost 
instantly,  and  died  with  tetanic  symptoms  in  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  (Watson's  Lectures,  art.  Tetanus). 

There  are  also  other  differential  signs,  such  as  the  mode 
of  contraction  of  the  arms,  hands,  and  feet,  the  peculiar  feel- 
ing of  apprehension  and  alarm  before  each  paroxysm,  the 
cry  of  the  patient,  &c.,  which,  although  not  positively  diag- 
nostic, are  nevertheless  highly  suggestive  of  the  presence  of 
the  poison. 

As  regards  the  hysterical  form  of  tetanus,  although  its  very 
existence  has  been  denied  by  some,  especially  as  connected 
with  the  male  subject,  other  authorities  of  equal  weight  de- 
scribe this  variety  of  the  disorder,  and  mention  cases  illustra- 
tive of  it.  It  is  well  known  that  this  protean  affection,  hys- 
teria, may  assume  the  appearance  of  nearly  every  other 
disease,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  some  of  its  phases  it 
may  put  on  the  semblance  of  tetanus.  Of  course,  in  a  sus- 
pected case,  a  knowledge  of  the  antecedent  history  of  the 
patient  would  serve  to  clear  up  the  diagnosis,  as  well  as  to 
distinguish  it  from  poisoning  by  strychnia. 

In  relation  to  epilepsy,  the  only  other  disease  that  need  be 
noticed,  the  diagnostic  signs  are  sufficiently  distinct.  The 
whole  features  of  an  epileptic  seizure  are  very  different  from 
those  of  a  paroxysm  induced  by  strychnia.  The  uncon- 
sciousness alone  would  serve  to  distinguish  them.  Then  the 
peculiar  clonic  convulsive  movements  of  epilepsy  are  totally 
distinct  from  the  characteristic  tetanic  spasm  of  strychnia- 
poisoning.  Again,  after  the  termination  of  an  epileptic  con- 
vulsion there  is  always  a  deep  stupor,  the  patient  sleeping 
profoundly  sometimes  for  hours ;  whereas  the  tetanic  spasm 


412  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

occasioned  by  strychnia  is  followed  by  complete  relaxation 
and  wakefulness ;  there  is  no  loss  of  consciousness  whatever. 
Again,  whilst  death  may  possibly  occur  in  a  first  epileptic 
fit,  it  has  never  been  known  to  occur  in  the  first  tetanic 
spasm  from  strychnia.  Nevertheless,  the  case  is  supposable 
where  an  epileptic  paroxysm  has  terminated  fatally  under 
suspicious  circumstances;  here  the  death  might,  very  natu- 
rally, be  attributed  to  poison,  and  nothing  but  an  accurate 
autopsy  would  be  able  to  reveal  its  real  cause.  M.  Tardieu 
(loc.  tit.,  p.  934)  gives  an  instructive  instance  of  this  character, 
which  fell  under  his  own  observation.  A  rich  foreigner,  who 
had  long  been  subject  to  convulsive  (epileptic)  attacks, 
resulting  from  habits  of  intoxication,  on  one  occasion 
succumbed  to  an  attack,  after  having  taken  a  powder  of 
unknown  composition.  The  disturbed  interests  and  excited 
feelings  of  the  survivors  suggested  suspicions  of  poisoning, 
which  the  position,  title,  and  large  fortune  of  the  deceased, 
no  less  than  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  his  death,  would 
not  suffer  to  remain  quiet.  An  echo  of  Palmer's  crime 
had  been  sounded,  and  the  name  of  strychnia  had  been 
pronounced.  Tardieu  conducted  the  examination  of  the 
body.  He  found  in  the  brain  marks  of  deep  and  old  struc- 
tural changes,  which,  in  connection  with  the  well-attested 
antecedents  of  the  deceased,  were  sufficient  to  do  away 
with  all  ideas  of  poisoning  by  strychnia. 

Chemical  analysis. — As  already  stated,  strychnia  occurs  both 
as  a  white  powder  and  in  the  crystalline  form  (see  p.  397). 
It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water;  one  part  of  the  alkaloid  re- 
quiring from  seven  to  eight  thousand  parts  of  cold  water  for 
its  solution.  It  is  rather  more  soluble  in  hot  water.  Abso- 
lute alcohol  dissolves  one  part  in  a  little  over  two  hundred; 
common  whisky,  one  part  in  four  hundred  (\Yormley);  ainy- 
lic  alcohol,  one  part  in  one  hundred  and  twenty-two;  benzole, 
one  part  in  two  hundred  and  fifty ;  commercial  ether,  one  part  in 
about  one  thousand ;  pure  ether,  one  part  in  about  fourteen  hun- 
dred ;  chloroform,  one  part  in  eight  of  the  menstruum.  From 
the  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  chloroform  is  better  adapted 
for  separating  strychnia  from  its  aqueous  solutions,  than 
ether;  although  the  latter  solvent  will  answer  very  well,  and 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.        413 

is  much  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  alkaloid  is  in- 
soluble in  the  fixed  alkalies,  and  only  sparingly  soluble  in 
ammonia. 

The  salts  of  strychnia  are  for  the  most  part  very  sojuble 
in  water  and  in  alcohol;  much  more  so  in  the  latter  fluid 
than  the  pure  alkaloid.  They  are  also  very  slightly  soluble 
in  ether. 

The  taste  of  strychnia  is  extremely  and  persistently  bitter. 
This  taste  is  one  of  its  characteristic  qualities.  It  is,  in  fact, 
the  bitterest  substance  known.  As  the  result  of  numerous 
experiments,  we  have  found  a  distinct  bitterness  yielded  by 
a  solution  of  one  grain  of  strychnia  in  several  gallons  of 
water.  The  books  usually  state  the  extent  of  this  bitterness 
to  be  one  grain  in  a  gallon,  or  seventy  thousand  grains;  but 
according  to  our  experience  it  far  exceeds  this  limit.  The 
bitter  taste  we  regard  as  one  of  the  strongest  corroborative 
proofs  of  the  presence  of  strychnia,  in  a  medico-legal  investi- 
gation. Unless  the  ultimate  extract  obtained  by  the  manip- 
ulation affords  some  evidence  of  bitterness  to  the  taste,  we 
need  hardly  expect  to  prove  the  presence  of  the  poison  by 
the  usual  chemical  tests.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mere 
presence  of  bitterness  is  not  evidence  of  strychnia,  since  this 
quality  also  belongs  to  a  great  number  of  other  substances, 
such  as  quinia,  morphia,  aloes,  colocynth,  quassia,  picro- 
toxia,  etc. 

The  concentrated  mineral  acids  produce  no  coloration  with 
strychnia,  if  the  latter  is  pure ;  if  it  contains  any  brucia,  it 
will  impart  a  reddish  color  to  nitric  acid.  Heated  on  porce- 
lain, it  melts  slowly  into  a  brown  liquid,  and  is  decomposed, 
giving  off  dense  white  fumes,  and  leaving  a  carbon.  If 
heated  in  the  spirit-lamp,  it  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  yel- 
lowish, smoky  flame.  According  to  some  authorities,  it 
cannot  be  sublimed  without  undergoing  decomposition.  Prof. 
Guy,  on  the  contrary,  asserts  that  the  sublimation  test  is  an 
admirable  mode  of  identifying  it,  even  with  such  minute 
quantities  as  the  one-hundredth  down  to  one  ten-thou- 
sandth of  a  grain.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  to  place  the 
minute  fragment  on  a  clean,  dry  porcelain  lid,  in  the  centre 
of  a  ring  of  glass;  a  glass  disk  or  microscope-slide  is  dried, 

27 


414  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

heated  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  and  placed  on  the 
ring.  The  flame  is  then  applied  to  the  porcelain  until  it  is 
sufficiently  heated,  when  a  mist  will  appear  on  the  glass;  and 
upon.this,  in  succession,  several  milk-white  spots,  sometimes 
distinct  and  sometimes  coalescing,  will  form.  These  may, 
or  may  not,  be  crystalline,  though  they  often,  under  the 
microscope,  present  a  variety  of  crystalline  forms,  some  of 
which  ar-e  pennate,  or  feathery.  Although  none  of  these 
forms,  thus  procured,  can  be  considered  positively  charac- 
teristic of  strychnia,  they  serve  admirably  for  the  further  cor- 
roborative proof  by  the  color  test,  which  will  be  explained 
below. 

1.  The  color  test. — This  test  is  so  named  from  the  beautiful 
succession  or  play  of  colors  that  is  developed  by  it.  It  con- 
sists in  the  application  of  a  drop  of  pure  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  to  a  small  fragment  of  strychnia,  placed  on  a 
white  porcelain  surface,  or  on  a  watch-glass  over  white  paper. 
If  the  strychnia  be  perfectly  pure,  it  will  dissolve  in  the  acid 
without  coloration.  If  now  a  minute  fragment  of  bichromate 
of  potassa,  ferricyanide  of  potassium,  permanganate  of  potassa, 
binoxide  of  manganese,  or  peroxide  (puce  oxide)  of  had,  be  stirred 
in  contact  with  the  solution,  by  means  of  a  pointed  glass  rod, 
this  play  of  colors  is  instantly  manifested.  At  first  it  is  a 
rich  deep  blue ;  this  gradually  passes  into  a  violet  or  purple, 
which  in  its  turn  fades  into  a  pink,  and  finally  into  a  red. 
The  relative  duration  of  these  different  shades  of  color  de- 
pends on  the  quantity  of  strychnia  operated  on,  and  also  on 
the  relative  amounts  of  the  acid  and  the  color-developing 
substance.  The  success  of  the  experiment  greatly  depends 
upon  the  proper  proportioning  of  these  different  agents. 
Thus,  if  the  quantity  of  strychnia  be  extremely  small,  the 
blue  color  may  continue  only  for  a  moment,  or  it  may  even 
be  entirely  absent,  the  mixture  developing  only  a  violet  or 
purple  hue,  which  quickly  passes  into  red.  Where  the  quan- 
tity of  the  poison  tested  is  almost  infinitesimal,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, one  half-millionth  of  a  grain,  or  even  less,  the  most  that 
can  be  expected,  under  the  very  nicest  adjustment,  as  the 
mixture  is  made  with  the  glass  rod,  is  an  evanescent  flash  of 
violet,  succeeded  by  a  reddish  hue. 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — THE   COLOR   TEST.  415 

The  principle  involved  in  the  color  test  is  the  action  of 
nascent  oxygen  (developed  by  the  acid  on  the  various  oxi- 
dizing substances  above  named)  upon  the  strychnia.  For  the 
performance  of  the  experiment,  it  is  immaterial  which  of 
the  color-developing  substances  is  used,  provided  no  im- 
purity be  present.  Different  authorities  evince  a  preference 
for  one  or  another,  according  to  their  individual  tastes.  The 
successful  result  depends  much  more  on  the  purity  of  the 
reagents,  and  on  the  freedom  of  the  strychnia  from  foreign 
matters.  It  is,  however,  probably  true  that,  if  the  strychnia 
be  associated  with  organic  impurities  (as  it  is  apt  to  be  in 
a  medico-legal  examination),  the  permanganate  will  be  less 
likely  to  be  interfered  with  than  the  others.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  pure  bichromate  of  potassa,  used  in  the  form  of  a 
minute  crystal,  answers  every  purpose.  It  has  also  been 
claimed  that  the  primary  blue  tint  is  more  intense  and  more 
durable,  when  developed  by  the  permanganate,  the  binoxide 
of  manganese,  or  the  oxide  of  lead,  than  by  the  bichromate; 
but,  as  remarked  by  Dr.  Wormley,  this  is  true  only  of  given 
quantities  of  the  alkaloid,  and  depends  upon  the  physical 
state  of  these  different  reagents. 

In  an  excellent  practical  paper,  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Lyman,  in 
the  "New  York  Medical  Gazette,"  March  18,  1871,  the 
subject  of  testing  for  strychnia,  both  in  its  pure  state  and 
as  associated  with  organic  matters,  is  fully  discussed.  The 
author  thinks  that  for  the  detection  of  pure  strychnia  any 
of  the  usual  color-producing  substances  may  be  indifferently 
employed ;  but  where  the  poison  is  mixed  with  organic  im- 
purities, he  found  the  most  reliable  reagents  to  be  the  per- 
manganate of  potassa  and  the  hydrated  peroxide  of  manganese  (the 
latter  is  not  the  commercial  black  oxide,  but  is  prepared  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  the  chloride  by  a  filtered  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime);  the  former  will  give  the  appropriate  color- 
reaction  under  circumstances  when  the  others  entirely  fail 
or  are  obscured.  Dr.  Lyman  experimented  with  strychnia 
mixed  with  a  great  variety  of  organic  substances,  such  as 
qninia,  morphia,  sugar,  flour,  tannin,  etc.,  and  also  with 
animal  matters:  he  found  that  while  the  permanganate 
would  give  with  them,  and  indeed  with  most  organic  sub- 


416  MANUAL  OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

stances,  in  the  absence  of  strychnia,  a  violet  color,  which 
fades  away  without  passing  into  red,  the  presence  of  the  mi- 
nutest portion  of  strychnia  always  insures  the  true  charac- 
teristic reaction,  viz.,  the  production  of  the  succession  of  the 
colors — violet,  passing  into  pink  and  red  successively. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  clear  ideas  ahout  this  color 
test  for  strychnia.  It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not 
the  mere  production  of  a  blue  or  violet  color  by  the  re- 
agents that  is  the  diagnostic  sign :  other  substances  besides 
strychnia  may  do  this;  it  is  the  regular  succession  of  tints, 
commencing  with  the  blue  (sometimes  with  violet)  and 
proceeding  on  to  pink  and  red — the  last  continuing  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time,  and  giving  place  ultimately  to 
a  greenish  hue.  So  far  as  is  known  at  present,  strychnia 
is  the  only  substance  that  responds  to  the  above  requisition. 
Certain  substances  that  react  somewhat  similarly  will  be 
noticed  hereafter  under  the  head  of  Fallacies. 

The  exceeding  delicacy  of  the  color  test  deserves  to  be 
considered.  If  the  strychnia  be  perfectly  pure,  and  the 
manipulation  be  properly  performed,  so  minute  a  quantity 
as  one-millionth  of  a  grain  may  be  detected  by  it.  This  we 
have  frequently  verified  in  our  own  experience,  and  it  is 
corroborated  by  other  experimenters.  The  ability  to  identify 
such  an  almost  infinitesimal  quantity  depends  simply  on  the 
delicacy  of  the  manipulation  and  the  purity  of  the  materials 
used.  In  order  to  procure  for  experimenting  so  minute  a 
quantity  of  the  poison  as  that  above  mentioned,  a  pure  solu- 
tion of  strychnia  in  water  acidulated  with  a  little  acetic  acid 
is  first  made,  of  definite  strength.  This  may  then  readily  be 
reduced  to  any  degree  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water. 
Fractional  portions  of  the  last  solution  may  then  be  obtained 
by  using  a  pipette  drawn  out  to  a  capillary  point,  which  will 
deposit  minute  droplets  on  a  warmed,  clean  porcelain  or  glass 
surface.  The  object  here  is  to  concentrate  the  quantity  to  be 
experimented  on  into  as  small  a  space  as  possible.  The  drop 
should  then  be  evaporated  to  dryness  spontaneously ;  a  small 
drop  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  then  applied  to 
the  deposit  by  means  of  a  finely-pointed  glass  rod ;  and,  last 
of  all,  a  very  minute  fragment  of  crystallized  bichromate  or 


STRYCHNIA. — INTERFERENCES   WITH    COLOR   TEST.         417 

ferricyanide  of  potassium,  or  of  any  of  the  other  oxidizing 
agents,  is  plaped  alongside  of  the  acid  solution,  and  then  by 
means  of  the  pointed  rod  it  is  drawn  through  the  solution, 
and  gently  stirred  with  it.  Dr.  Lyman  advises  (loc.  cit.\  in 
experimenting  with  these  very  minute  amounts  of  strychnia, 
to  employ  an  extremely  small  drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  to 
dilute  the  powdered  bichromate  with  some  inert  powder  (such 
as  that  scraped  from  a  slate-pencil),  and  to  use  but  a  minute 
portion  of  the  latter.  He  recommends  to  rub  up  the  per- 
manganate of  potassa  or  the  hydrated  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese with  a  drop  or  two  of  sulphuric  acid  on  a  porcelain 
surface,  with  a  glass  rod,  and  to  use  a  small  portion  of  this 
solution  along  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  on  the  dried  residue. 
For  this  fractional  testing  he  rather  gives  the  preference  to 
the  permanganate  and  the  ferricyanide  of  potassium,  as  the 
oxidizing  agents.  Dr.  Taylor  regards  the  permanganate  as 
objectionable,  on  account  of  its  solubility,  and  of  its  being 
already  colored;  but  if  it  is  used  as  above  directed,  the 
objection  does  not  seem  to  hold  good. 

Interferences. — The  color  test  properly  applied  will  detect 
an  exceedingly,  small  amount  of  pure  strychnia,  as  above 
mentioned.  There  are  many  organic  substances,  however, 
whose  presence  will  serve  materially  to  modify,  and  even 
completely  to  mask,  the  usual  color-reactions.  Brieger,  in 
1850,  first  announced  that  the  reaction  was  more  or  less 
interfered  with  by  morphia,  quinia,  and  sugar  (Chem.  Gaz., 
vol.  viii.  p.  408);  and  since  then  the  list  of  such  substances 
has  been  much  extended.  Dr.  "Wormley  has  likewise  investi- 
gated this  subject  (Ohio  Med.  Jour.,  Jan.  and  March,  1864), 
with  similar  results. 

Dr.  Lyman  also  experimented  on  strychnia  in  the  presence 
of  morphia  (loc.  tit.}.  He  first  tried  a  solution  containing 
twenty-five  parts  of  morphia  to  one  of  strychnia,  and  this 
was  deposited  in  minute  fractional  drops  on  porcelain,  and 
dried;  spots  were  also  formed  containing  the  same  amount 
of  morphia,  but  no  strychnia.  To  both,  the  tests  were  ap- 
plied in  the  usual  way.  None  of  the  tests  except  the  permanga- 
nate gave  any  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  strychnia :  this,  however, 
gave  a  purple  color,  passing  to  light  red.  The  test  applied  to 


418  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

the  morphia  alone,  also  gave  a  light  purple  color,  which 
faded  gradually  away,  without  passing  to  the  red. 

When  strychnia  is  mixed  with  a  large  excess  of  sulphate  of 
quinia,  it  refuses  to  respond  to  any  of  the  color  tests  except 
the  permanganate,  which  gives  the  characteristic  change  of 
colors.  The  latter  will  also  give  to  quinia  alone,  as  to  mor- 
phia, a  violet  color,  which,  however,  gradually  fades  away 
without  changing  to  red.  (Ibid.) 

The  fact  of  these  interferences  must,  then,  be  admitted. 
Practically,  however,  they  may  be  avoided  in  a  medico-legal 
investigation,  by  the  employment  of  chloroform  instead  of 
ether  as  the  solvent  to  extract  the  strychnia  from  organic 
mixtures;  the  interfering  substances  (morphia,  the  nitrates, 
tartar  emetic,  etc.)  are  insoluble  in  this  menstruum. 

That  morphia,  among  other  substances,  when  associated 
with  strychnia  in  certain  proportions,  has  the  property  of  dis- 
guising the  usual  color  test  of  the  latter  alkaloid,  is  abun- 
dantly established,  although  the  proposition  has  been  denied 
by  some  eminent  authorities.  The  author  made  an  elabo- 
rate series  of  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  settling  this 
question,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  the  "Ameri- 
can Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,"  October,  1861,  and 
April,  1862.  These  results  very  clearly  prove  that  when 
these  two  alkaloids  are  mixed  together  in  minute  quantities — 
either  in  their  pure  state,  or  associated  with  complex  organic 
matters — the  usual  color  test  for  strychnia  is  certainly  inter- 
fered with  ;  and,  further,  that  the  degree  of  interference  "de- 
pends upon  the  relative  quantity  of  the  two  alkaloids, — the  strychnia 
not  being  discoverable  when  the  morphia  is  in  excess,  and  barely 
discoverable  when  in  equal  quantity."  To  establish  this  proposi- 
tion the  following  experiments  are  quoted  from  the  above- 
named  article : 

"  Exp.  1.  The  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  was 
put  into  a  pint  of  water,  together  with  several  ounces  of 
beef  finely  cut  up,  some  starch,  common  salt,  and  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid  (the  object  being  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
represent  the  contents  of  the  stomach  after  eating).  The 
whole  was  subjected  to  a  moderate  heat,  strained,  pressed, 
and  evaporated,  and  finally  treated  after  the  process  of  M. 


STRYCHNIA. — EFFECT   OF   MORPHIA   ON   COLOR   TEST.      419 

Stas.  The  ethereal  solution  on  being  concentrated  yielded 
clear  proof  of  the  presence  of  strychnia,  both  by  the  color 
test  and  by  the  bitter  taste. 

"  Exp.  2.  This  was  a  repetition  of  the  last,  except  that  to 
the  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  there  was  added 
three  times  that  quantity  of  morphia  (one-thirty-third  of  a 
grain).  Although  precisely  the  same  process  was  employed, 
not  the  slightest  trace  of  strychnia  could  be  discovered  by 
the  color  test. 

"  Exp.  3.  This  resembled  the  preceding  experiment,  ex- 
cept that  the  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain  of  morphia  was  added 
to  the  strychnia  (or  double  instead  of  treble  the  quantity) : 
here  likewise  the  color  test  entirely  failed. 

"  Exp.  4.  In  this  case  an  equal  amount  of  morphia,  or  the 
one-hundredth  of  a  grain,  was  added  to  the  strychnia,  the 
same  method  being  still  pursued :  the  result  was  that  the 
faintest  possible  evidence  of  the  presence  of  strychnia  was 
afforded,  and  only  after  repeated  trials." 

These  experiments  were  all  purposely  performed  with  very 
minute  quantities  of  strychnia.  It  was  not  deemed  neces- 
sary to  experiment  upon  such  large  amounts  as  one  grain, 
or,  indeed,  any  portion  over  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain.  The 
detection  of  such  comparatively  large  quantities  presents  no 
practical  difficulties,  either  with  or  without  the  presence  of 
morphia.  But  it  is  far  otherwise  when  the  toxicologist  has 
to  deal  with  such  fractional  portions  as  the  one-thousandth 
down  to  one  jive-hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain.  In  the  latter 
case,  as  before  remarked,  the  interfering  influence  of  morphia 
becomes  very  apparent.  As  the  results  of  various  experi- 
ments made  with  minute  portions  of  the  two  alkaloids  in  the 
pure  state,  i.e.  free  from  all  organic  mixture,  it  was  found 
that  not  only  is  the  difficulty  of  detecting  strychnia  greatly  in- 
creased by  increasing  the  proportion  of  morphia,  but  also  that 
the  actual  amount  of  it  discoverable  is  nearly  in  the  inverse 
ratio  with  the  amount  of  combined  morphia.  For  example, 
when  the  quantity  of  the  two  alkaloids  was  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  one,  so  small  a  quantity  of  strychnia  as  one  Jive- 
hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain  could  be  detected.  From  this, 
the  minimum  amount  discoverable  progressively  rose  with  the 


420  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

increase  of  the  proportion  of  the  associated  morphia,  until 
in  the  last  experiment,  made  with  one  proportion  of  strych- 
nia to  twenty  of  morphia,  the  smallest  quantity  that  could  be 
detected  had  increased  to  one  five-thousandth  of  a  grain. 
Doubtless,  if  the  relative  quantity  of  the  morphia  had  been 
further  increased,  the  minimum  quantity  of  strychnia  dis- 
coverable would  also  have  progressively  augmented. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above-mentioned  minute 
quantities  have  reference  only  to  the  alkaloids  when  em- 
ployed in  the  pure  state.  But  in  order  more  fully  to  settle  the 
question,  and  to  meet  the  objection  that  the  result  might 
have  been  different  if  the  two  alkaloids  had  been  in  the  stott<"<-/<. 
of  a  living  animal,  the  following  experiments  were  made. 
"Half  a  grain  of  pure  strychnia  was  given  to  a  cat,  which 
died  in  convulsions  in  eleven  minutes.  The  stomach,  exam- 
ined on  the  following  day  by  Stas'  process,  afforded  clear 
proof  of  the  presence  of  strychnia  by  the  color  test.  To  a 
second  cat,  a  quarter  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  and  the  same 
quantity  of  morphia  were  given ;  and  the  stomach  wa* 
examined  as  before.  The  faintest  possible  evidence  of 
strychnia  was  obtained, — exactly  coinciding  with  a  previous 
experiment  made  with  the  organic  mixture.  To  a  third  cat, 
one-twentieth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  and  one-tenth  of  a 
grain  of  morphia  (double  the  quantity)  were  given.  Here 
there  was  a  total  failure  to  obtain  the  color  test;  although 
the  bitterness  of  the  extract,  and  the  fact  that  the  solution 
produced  the  characteristic  tetanic  convulsions  in  a  number 
of  frogs,  distinctly  proved  its  existence." 

We  are  therefore  of  the  opinion  that  the  proposition  laid 
down  has  been  abundantly  established  by  the  foregoing  ex- 
periments, viz.,  that  "in  experimenting  on  very  minute  quan- 
tities of  strychnia,  the  presence  of  morphia  has  the  power  of 
disguising  the  usual  color  test,  especially  if  the  latter  alkaloid  be 
in  excess" 

Certain  authorities  have  taken  exception  to  the  above 
conclusions,  and  have  maintained  that  there  is  no  such  in- 
terference. The  late  Prof.  R.  P.  Thomas,  of  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy,  gives  this  as  his  opinion  (Amer.  Jour. 
Med.  Sci.,  April,  1862,  p.  340),  based  upon  a  number  of  his 


STRYCHNIA. — EFFECT   OF    MORPHIA    ON    COLOR   TEST.      421 

experiments  ;  and  the  distinguished  authors  of  the  "  United 
States  Dispensatory"  (twelfth  edition,  1865)  adopt  the  same 
view,  quoting  Prof.  Thomas's  paper  as  the  basis  of  their 
opinion.  But  both  these  authorities  have  fallen  into  the  error 
of  not  distinguishing  between  an  experiment  made  with  the 
two  alkaloids  strychnia  and  morphia,  where  ether  was  em- 
ployed as  the  ultimate  solvent  (as  in  Stas'  process),  arid  one 
in  which  chloroform  was  the  solvent  used  :  in  the  former  case, 
both  alkaloids  would  be  dissolved,  whereas  in  the  latter,  only 
the  strychnia  would  enter  into  solution  (since  morphia  is 
nearly  insoluble  in  chloroform).  Of  course,  then,  since  Prof. 
Thomas  used  chloroform  instead  of  ether  (which  latter  was  the 
solvent  employed  in  our  experiments),  he  did  not  meet  the 
mooted  question  at  all,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  he  did  not,  in 
point  of  fact,  experiment  upon  the  combined  alkaloids,  because 
there  was  no  morphia  present:  it  had  all  been  left  behind  in  the 
alkaline  aqueous  solution ! 

In  order  that  we  may  not  be  misunderstood,  we  quote  ver- 
batim from  Prof.  Thomas's  paper  (loc.  cit.,  p.  343) :  "  The 
solution  of  caustic  potassa  was  selected  for  several  reasons : 
...  it  dissolves  morphia,  but  does  not  dissolve  strychnia." 
"As  the  solution  of  potassa  dissolves  morphia  and  rejects 
strychnia,  while  chloroform  has  the  reverse  property  of  taking 
up  the  strychnia  and  rejecting  the  morphia,  it  must  be  evi- 
dent that  the  conjoint  use  of  these  fluids  would  effect  an  entire 
separation  of  the  two  alkaloids." 

In  the  only  experiment  out  of  the  many  detailed  by  Prof. 
Thomas  that  even  appears  to  lead  to  a  result  different  from  the 
results  of  the  author,  he  says :  "  equal  weights  [the  amount  is 
not  stated]  of  the  pure  alkaloids  were  rubbed  together  in  a 
mortar  and  tested."  Here,  comparatively  large  quantities 
of  the  solid  alkaloids  were  subjected  to  the  experiment.  Of 
course,  as  we  have  explained  above,  he  could  not  fail  to  get 
the  color  test,  even  though  the  morphia  might  be  "  twenty 
times"  in  excess  of  the  strychnia;  but  no  mention  is  any- 
where made  of  similar  experiments  performed  upon  very 
minute  portions. 

Finally,  upon  this  branch  of  the  subject,  we  entirely  assent 
to  the  recommendation  of  Prof.  Thomas — which  is  also  that 


422  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

of  all  the  best  modern  toxicologists — to  employ  chloroform 
instead  of  ether  as  the  proper  ultimate  solvent  for  strychnia, 
especially  in  the  presence  of  morphia. 

In  practice,  the  toxicologist  will  probably  encounter  the 
most  troublesome  interference  from  the  complex  organic  sub- 
stances which  are  so  apt  to  be  present  along  with  the  strych- 
nia in  the  ultimate  extract  obtained  either  by  chloroform  or 
by  ether.  The  proper  method  of  effecting  their  separation 
will  be  described  below,  under  the  head  of  Detection  in  Organic 
Mixtures. 

Fallacies. — Exceptions  have  been  taken  to  the  color  test  on 
the  ground  that  other  substances  besides  strychnia  will  yield 
colors  somewhat  similar,  if  not  identical,  when  subjected  to 
the  same  reagents.  The  substances  alluded  to  are  curarine 
(the  active  principle  of  woorara),  aniline,  veratria,  cod-liver  oil, 
salicine,  santonine,  pyroxanthine,  narceia,  papaverine,  and  solania. 
But  in  relation  to  all  of  them,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
it  may  be  remarked,  as  a  radical  ground  of  distinction,  that 
they  are  colored  by  sulphuric  acid  alone — which  is  not  the 
case  with  strychnia.  A  salt  of  aniline  is  not  colored  by  sul- 
phuric acid  alone,  but  on  the  addition  of  bichromate  of  po- 
tassa  it  acquires  a  yellowish  or  greenish  tint,  shows  bluish 
streaks,  and  finally  assumes  a  deep-blue  color,  which  lasts 
for  some  time,  but  ultimately  becomes  nearly  black.  In  this 
case,  the  only  resemblance  is  the  deep-blue  color;  but  the 
point  of  divergence  is  the  relative  sequence  of  the  colors  : 
in  the  case  of  strychnia,  the  blue  always  appears  first,  and 
is  soon  succeeded  by  the  violet  and  red,  and  ultimately  the 
green;  whilst  in  the  case  of  aniline,  the  blue  is  very  slowly 
developed,  but  is  very  permanent,  giving  place  finally  to  a 
black  hue. 

As  regards  curarine,  the  active  principle  of  woorara  or 
curara,  there  are  some  points  of  resemblance  with  strychnia 
which  deserve  notice.  Like  strychnia,  it  has  an  intensely 
bitter  taste,  and  it  yields  under  the  combined  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  an  oxidizing  agent,  as  bichromate  of  potassa, 
a  succession  of  colors  very  much  resembling  those  of  strych- 
nia. Moreover,  its  solution  forms  with  the  bichromate  solu- 
tion a  yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  which,  when  touched 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — TESTS.  423 

with  sulphuric  acid,  gives  the  characteristic  play  of  colors. 
The  points  of  difference  are,  that  it  and  its  compounds  are 
uncrystallizable ;  it  is  colored  by  sulphuric  acid  alone;  it  is 
nearly  insoluble  in  chloroform,  and  readily  soluble  in  potash, 
and  its  solutions  are  not  precipitated  by  the  alkalies.  Its 
physiological  effects  are  the  opposite  of  those  of  strychnia. 

Cod-liver  oil,  when  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  alone,  yields 
a  play  of  colors  very  similar  to  that  produced  by  strychnia. 
In  relation  to  the  other  substances  mentioned,  they  all  pre- 
sent characters  abundantly  sufficient  to  distinguish  them 
from  strychnia. 

2.  The  galvanic  color  test.  —  This  method,  devised  by  Dr. 
Letheby,  acts  on  the  same  principle  as  the  ordinary  color- 
developing  substances,  by  the  evolution  of  nascent  oxygen, 
but  in  this  instance  by  means  of  galvanism.     A  drop  of  a 
very  dilute  solution  of  strychnia  is  placed  in  a  small  platinum 
capsule,  allowed  to  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  then  moistened 
with  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.     The  capsule  is  then 
connected  with  the  positive  pole  of  a  single  cell  of  a  Grove's 
or  Smee's  battery,  and  the  acid  touched  with  the  platinum 
terminal  of  the   negative  pole.     In    an   instant  the  violet 
color  will  flash  out  with  great  intensity,  and  will  remain  on 
removing  the  pole.     We  do  not  think  this  method  offers 
any  peculiar  advantage  over  the  test  as  commonly  applied. 
It  is,  moreover,  quite  as  much  open  to  interferences  and  fal- 
lacies as  the  former;  and  in  our  hands  it  has  not  been  quite 
so  successful  for  the  recognition  of  very  minute  portions  of 
the  poison. 

3.  Potassa  and  ammonia. — These  alkalies  precipitate  from 
somewhat  concentrated  salts  of  strychnia  a  white,  amorphous 
deposit  of  the  pure  alkaloid,  which  shortly  assumes  the  crys- 
talline form.    The  best  mode  is  to  expose  a  drop  of  the  strych- 
nia solution  for  a  few  moments  to  the  vapors  of  ammonia,  and 
place  it  under  the  microscope :  the  formation  of  the  mass  of 
long  stellate  crystals  can  easily  be  distinguished.     The  true 
character  of  the  crystals  may  readily  be  determined  by  touch- 
ing them  with  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  a  fragment 
of  bichromate  of  potash,  when  the  play  of  colors  will  take 
place. 


424  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

4.  Bichromate  of  potassa. — A  solution  of  this  salt  produces 
with  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  strychnia  an  immediate  bright- 
yellow  precipitate,  which  speedily  becomes  crystalline,  and 
is  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  the  precipitant.     If  the  alkaloidal 
solution  be  dilute,  the  formation  of  the  crystals  is  delayed : 
it  may  be  facilitated  by  stirring  the  mixture  with  a  glass  rod. 
Seen  under  the  microscope,  this  crystallization  is  very  satis- 
factory :  it  usually  consists  of  dendroidal  groups,  intermingled 
with  small  octahedral  plates.     These  crystals  must  be  con- 
firmed by  touching  them,  when  dry,  with  a  drop  of  pure 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  when  immediately  the  character- 
istic succession  of  colors  will  be  developed.    By  this  method 
one   five-thousandth   to   one  ten-thousandth  of  a   grain  of 
strychnia  may  be  identified;  and  also  by  it,  two  of  the  most 
characteristic  tests  may  be  applied  to  the  same  portion  of 
strychnia. 

5.  Picric  or  carbazotic  acid. — This  reagent  is  especially  recom- 
mended by  Prof.  Guy,  as  one  of  the  most  reliable  corrobora- 
tive tests  for  strychnia.     An  aqueous  (or  alcoholic)  solution 
of  the  strength  of  one  two-hundred-and-fiftieth  is  used,  a  drop 
of  which  is  added  to   a  drop  of  the  strychnia  solution  on 
a  glass  slide,  and  is  viewed  under  the   microscope.      An 
abundant  yellow  precipitate  first  forms,  which  is  soon  con- 
verted into  tufts  of  crystals  of  a  peculiar  claw-like  form, 
resembling  tufts  of  grass.     This  peculiar  crystalline  form 
seems  to  belong  exclusively  to  the  carbazotate  of  strychnia. 
The  deposit  may  also  be  subjected  to  the  color  test,  by  dis- 
solving it  in  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  adding  one  of  the 
usual  oxidizing  bodies. 

6.  Corrosive  sublimate  in  solution  causes  an  abundant  white 
precipitate,  which  assumes  the  form  of  groups  of  radiating 
crystals  attached  to  a  granular  nucleus.    This  test,  according 
to  "Wormley,  fails  in  solutions  weaker  than  one  five-hun- 
dredth of  a  grain  of  strychnia  to  the  drop  of  water.     It  is 
consequently  much  less  delicate  than  the  preceding  tests. 

7.  Ferricyanide  of  potassium  produces  in  strong  neutral  solu- 
tions of  strychnia  a  yellowish,  amorphous  precipitate,  which 
is  soon  converted  into  a  mass  of  beautiful  groups  of  crystals. 
This  test  is  likely  to  fail  in  solutions  of  less  strength  than 


POISONING    BY   STRYCHNIA. — TESTS.  425 

one  grain  to  five  hundred  of  water.  The  deposit  may  (as  in 
the  bichromate  of  potassa  test)  be  subjected  to  the  color 
test  simply  by  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  which 
will  develop  the  usual  play  of  colors.  In  point  of  delicacy, 
however,  it  is  much  inferior  to  the  bichromate  test. 

8.  Bichloride  of  platinum  occasions  in  solutions  of  salts  of 
strychnia  a  pale-yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  which  soon 
assumes  a  crystalline  form,  which  is  insoluble  in  acetic  and 
dilute  nitric  acids.     It  will  give  a  perceptible  reaction  when 
the  strychnia  is  diluted  to  one  ten-thousandth.    This  reagent 
also  yields  precipitates  with  many  of  the  other  alkaloids,  of 
a  similar  color ;  but  the  crystalline  forms  are  different  in  the 
other  instances. 

9.  lodated  iodide  of  potassium. — The   aqueous  solution  of 
iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium  will  precipitate  a  number  of 
organic  substances,   and   particularly  the  alkaloids.      In  a 
strychnia  solution,  even  when  dilute,  it  occasions  a  reddish- 
brown,  amorphous  deposit,  which  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  but 
only  sparingly  so  in  acetic  acid.     This  deposit,  after  a  time, 
assumes  a  crystalline  form,  which  in  the  case  of  strychnia 
is  peculiar,  but  it  is  readily  interfered  with  by  the  presence 
of  foreign  matter.     According  to  "Wormley,  from  one  fifty- 
thousandth  to  even  one  hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain  will 
respond  to  this  reaction. 

The  precipitate  thus  obtained  is  regarded  by  Tardieu  (loc. 
cit.,  p.  953)  as  the  best  material  for  procuring  the  strychnia 
in  a  state  of  purity.  After  repeatedly  washing  it  in  water 
slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  water  is  decanted 
off',  and  a  few  drops  of  water  acidulated  with  one-tenth  of  its 
weight  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added,  together  with  a  pinch  of 
clean  iron-filings.  In  a  few  minutes  all  the  precipitate  is 
dissolved,  and  the  liquid  becomes  almost  colorless.  When 
all  disengagement  of  hydrogen  ceases,  ammonia,  in  slight 
excess,  is  added:  this  precipitates  both  the  strychnia  and  the 
oxide  of  iron.  The  mass  is  next  put  upon  a  filter,  and 
thoroughly  washed,  in  order  to  remove  the  soluble  salts ;  the 
filter  is  next  carefully  dried  between  bibulous  paper,  and  then 
cut  into  pieces,  and  introduced  into  a  flask  along  with  pure 
alcohol ;  it  is  kept  at  a  boiling  temperature  for  an  hour,  fre- 


426  MANUAL   OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

quently  stirring.  It  is  next  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evapor- 
ated to  dryness.  The  deposit,  although  colored,  is  generally 
crystalline,  and  may  be  used  for  experiments. 

10.  Sulphocyanide  of  potassium  yields  in  a  moderately  strong 
solution  of  strychnia  a  deposit  which  soon  changes  to  beau- 
tiful masses  of  long,  radiating  prisms.  These  crystals  are 
about  the  largest  and  best  defined  of  the  microscopic  de- 
posits obtained  from  strychnia. 

Tardieu  considers  chlorine  gas  to  be  a  very  delicate  test  for 
strychnia.  When  a  small  stream  of  this  gas  is  slowly  passed 
into  a  small  quantity  of  a  dilute  solution  of  strychnia,  each 
bubble  of  the  gas  becomes  surrounded  by  a  white  film,  and 
ultimately  quite  a  copious  white  amorphous  deposit  takes 
place.  This  is  soluble  in  ammonia.  According  to  the  above 
authority,  no  other  alkaloid  gives  this  reaction  with  chlorine. 
Besides  the  above  tests,  there  are  others  mentioned  in  the 
books,  as  chloride  of  gold,  tannic  acid,  bromine  in  bromide  of 
potassium,  iodo-hydrargyrate  of  potassium,  etc. 

The  physiological  or  frog  test. — The  extreme  susceptibility  of 
frogs  to  the  influence  of  strychnia  was  employed  by  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall  as  a  test  for  this  powerful  poison.  His  plan 
was  to  immerse  the  frog  partially  in  the  solution  of  strychnia, 
when,  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  solu- 
tion, the  animal  was  seized  with  tetanic  spasms,  in  which 
the  extremities  became  perfectly  rigid  and  extended.  Dr. 
Hall  states  that  by  this  method  he  could  detect  one  five- 
thousandth  part  of  a  grain  of  strychnia.  Dr.  Harley  subse- 
quently applied  the  test  by  injecting  it  into  the  thoracic  or 
abdominal  cavity  of  the  frog:  he  found  that  by  this  means 
one  sixteen-thousandth  of  a  grain  would  occasion  the  char- 
acteristic convulsions. 

We  have  ourselves  employed  this  test  very  extensively. 
In  the  journal  already  alluded  to,  some  of  these  results  were 
communicated.  Undoubtedly,  the  frog  test  is  one  of  the 
most  delicate,  as  also  one  of  the  most  reliable,  of  all  the  tests 
for  strychnia,  as  will  be  seen  from  some  of  our  experiments, 
which  are  here  transcribed : 

"A  small  frog,  weighing  about  forty  grains,  was  immersed 
in  a  solution  containing  one  grain  of  strychnia  to  twelve  pints 


POISONING   BY   STRYCHNIA. — THE   FROG   TEST.  427 

of  water  (one  minim  of  which  would  contain  less  than  one 
ninety-two-thousandth  of  a  grain) :  tetanic  spasms  were  pro- 
duced in  fifteen  minutes. 

"A  solution  of  one-half  the  strength  of  the  foregoing,  in 
which  one  minim  would  represent  a  little  over  one  two- 
hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain,  produced  decided  convulsions 
in  a  frog  weighing  twenty-nine  grains,  after  half  an  hour's 
immersion. 

"The  one  five-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  was  put 
into  the  throat  of  a  middling-sized  frog :  it  was  convulsed,, 
and  died  in  about  thirty  minutes.  The  extract  obtained 
from  the  abdominal  viscera  by  Stas'  process,  although  it 
afforded  no  perceptible  color  test,  had  a  bitterish  taste,  and 
produced  tetanic  spasms  in  several  small  active  frogs. 

"  In  these  experiments,  the  frog  was  put  into  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  solution — not  more  than  about  half  a  fluidrachm 
— so  as  simply  to  cover  the  hind  legs  and  a  portion  of  the 
body.  The  quantity  actually  absorbed  through  the  skin 
must,  necessarily,  have  been  extremely  minute:  hence  the 
great  delicacy  of  the  test,  and  its  value,  as  a  corroborative 
proof,  in  medico-legal  investigations." 

Prof.  Wormley's  experiments  with  the  frog  test  gave  results 
of  similar  delicacy.  He  found  one  ten-thousandth  to  one 
fifteen-thousandth  of  a  grain,  injected  into  the  stomach  of 
the  animal,  to  be  about  the  limit  for  this  test  (loc.  czY.,p.  577).. 

Being  desirous  of  ascertaining  whether  the  presence  of 
.morphia,  which,  as  we  have  seen  above,  has  the  power  of 
disguising  the  color  test  for  strychnia  in  small  quantities,  offers 
any  obstacle  to  the  employment  of  the  frog  test,  we  made 
the  following  experiments : 

"A  frog  weighing  forty  grains  was  immersed  in  a  solution 
containing  one  grain  of  strychnia  and  eight  grains  of  mor- 
phia to  a  pint  and  a  half  of  water:  it  exhibited  tetanic 
spasms  in  five  minutes. 

"  A  frog  weighing  one  hundred  grains  was  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  the  strength  o  one  grain  of  strychnia  and  twelve 
grains  of  morphia  in  three  pints  of  water:  it  exhibited  the 
usual  tetanic  spasms  in  fifteen  minutes. 

"A  frog  weighing  thirty-five  grains  was  immersed  in  a 


428  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

solution  containing  one  grain  of  strychnia  and  thirty-two 
grains  of  morphia  in  six  pints  of  water :  it  was  convulsed  in 
twenty  minutes.  Another  animal,  rather  smaller,  was  affected 
in  five  minutes. 

"A  cat  was  poisoned  by  taking  one-twentieth  of  a  grain 
of  strychnia  and  one-tenth  of  a  grain  of  morphia  (double  the 
quantity).  The  stomach,  on  being  examined  by  Stas'  pro- 
cess, failed  to  yield  the  color  test ;  but  the  watery  solution  of 
the  extract  produced  the  most  decided  tetanic  convulsions  in 
eight  frogs,  generally  resulting  in  death." 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Contents  of  the  stomach. — Any 
solid  matters  present  should  be  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  pure 
water  added,  if  necessary,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  acetic 
acid  to  give  a  distinct  acid  reaction.  If  the  elaborate  process 
of  M.  Stas  is  to  be  employed,  the  strongest  alcohol  is  used, 
instead  of  water,  as  the  first  solvent.  In  either  case,  the 
mass  should  be  digested  at  a  very  moderate  heat — about  160° 
F. — for  several  hours  (a  high  temperature  is  objectionable, 
as  it  dissolves  out  the  starchy  matters).  After  cooling,  it  is 
to  be  first  strained  through  fine  muslin,  and  the  solid  residue 
washed  with  dilute  alcohol,  and  strongly  pressed.  The  liquid 
should  next  be  concentrated  at  a  moderate  heat  to  a  small 
bulk,  again  strained,  and  filtered  through  paper.  It  is  gener- 
ally recommended  to  evaporate,  next,  to  about  dryness.  Any 
strychnia  present  would  now  be  in  the  residue  in  the  form  of 
acetate,  mixed  with  more  or  less  organic  matter.  This  resi- 
due should  be  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  small  quantity  of 
water  containing  a  drop  or  two  of  acetic  acid,  then  filtered, 
and  the  filter  washed  with  a  small  portion  of  water ;  the  fil- 
trate (concentrated,  if  necessary)  is  then  transferred  to  a  stout 
glass  tube  or  flask,  and  an  excess  of  solution  of  potassa  (or 
soda)  is  added,  which  liberates  the  strychnia  from  the  saline 
combination.  Pure  chloroform,  about  equaling  in  volume 
the  mixture,  is  next  added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  shaken 
together  for  about  a  minute,  when  it  is  set  aside  to  settle. 
The  chloroform  will  dissolve  out  the  alkaloid,  and,  being  of 
greater  specific  gravity,  it  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tube  or  flask. 

The  best  practical  method  of  separating  the  chloroform 


STRYCHNIA. — DETECTION    IN    ORGANIC   MIXTURES.          429 

solution  from  the  supernatant  liquid,  according  to  our  expe- 
rience, is  to  transfer  the  whole  to  a  stoppered  funnel,  or, 
what  answers  quite  as  well,  a  glass  syringe  of  proper  size, 
after  removing  the  piston,  and  having  previously  contracted 
the  nozzle  to  a  very  fine  aperture  by  means  of  the  flame. 
Before  introducing  the  liquid,  the  small  aperture  should  be 
temporarily  stopped  up  by  means  of  a  splinter  of  wood,  and 
about  half  a  drachm  of  pure  chloroform  should  first  be 
poured  into  the  syringe,  so  as  about  to  fill  its  narrow  portion. 
The  mixture  is  now  to  be  carefully  poured  in,  and  sufficient 
time  should  be  allowed  for  the  subsidence  of  the  chloroform 
solution.  By  placing  the  thumb  over  the  larger  aperture  of 
the  syringe,  and  withdrawing  the  wooden  plug,  it  will  be 
very  easy  to  control  the  flow  of  the  contents.  A  few  drops 
may  be  allowed  to  fall  successively,  as  each  one  dries,  upon 
a  warmed  porcelain  surface  or  watch-glass;  for  a  trial  test,  by 
means  of  sulphuric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potassa  (see  p. 
414).  The  whole  of  the  chloroform  is  then  permitted  to  flow 
out  into  one  or  more  capsules  or  watch-glasses,  great  care 
being  observed  not  to  allow  any  of  the  other  mixture  to 
escape  along  with  it.  It  may  be  proper  to  wash  the  remain- 
ing alkaline  liquid  with  a  fresh  portion  of  chloroform,  shaking 
them  together,  as  before,  in  the  tube  or  flask,  and  again 
separating  them  by  means  of  the  syringe.  All  the  chloro- 
form is  now  allowed  to  evaporate  spontaneously  to  dry  ness. 
The  contained  strychnia,  if  in  notable  quantity,  may  be  found 
in  the  crystalline  state  in  the  deposit. 

It  is,  however,  much  more  apt  to  be  in  an  amorphous  con- 
ditio.n  when  obtained  from  complex  organic  substances,  as 
the  contents  of  a  stomach.  A  portion  of  this  extract  should 
now  be  examined  by  the  taste,  by  the  color  test,  and  by  in- 
troducing some  of  it  beneath  the  skin  of  a  small  frog.  The 
remaining  portion  of  the  extract  should  be  dissolved  in  a 
minute  quantity  of  distilled  water,  containing  a  trace  of 
acetic  acid.  The  solution,  if  turbid,  should  be  filtered ;  and 
the  clear  filtrate  should  be  tested  with  the  different  reagents 
mentioned  at  p.  423. 

If  the  chloroform  extract  is  found  to  be  mixed  with  much 
organic  matter,  as  denoted  by  its  yellowish  color,  a  drop  or 

28 


430  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

two  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  to  be  added  to  the  solid  resi- 
due and  thoroughly  stirred  with  it  by  means  of  a  glass  rod, 
and  then  a  few  drops  of  water  added.  (The  acid  destroys 
and  carbonizes  all  the  organic  matter,  but  only  converts  the 
strychnia  into  a  sulphate.)  After  standing  some  time,  the 
resulting  dark  liquid  is  filtered,  caustic  potassa  is  added  in 
excess,  then  an  equal  bulk  of  chloroform,  and  the  whole 
shaken  together  as  before.  The  deposit  from  this  second 
chloroform  solution  is  usually  sufficiently  pure  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes.  Or,  instead  of  treating  the  solid  extract  with 
sulphuric  acid,  the  acidulated  aqueous  solution  obtained  from 
it  may  be  rendered  alkaline  by  potassa,  and  again  shaken 
with  pure  chloroform,  which  will  deposit  the  strychnia 
generally  in  great  purity. 

When  the  organic  mixture  is  very  complex,  as  is  apt  to  be 
the  case  when  taken  from  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  con- 
siderable trouble  may  be  experienced  in  the  separation  of  the 
chloroform  from  the  alkaline  solution.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that,  on  shaking  up  the  latter  with  chloroform,  a  white, 
saponaceous  mass  results,  resembling  an  emulsion,  from 
which  the  chloroform  refuses  to  separate,  even  after  standing 
for  some  hours.  In  such  cases  Dr.  Wormley  advises  (loc.  cit., 
p.  581)  to  agitate  the  mixture  with  about  half  its  volume 
of  pure  water,  and  allow  it  to  repose  for  several  hours,  if 
necessary,  when  more  or  less  of  the  water  will  separate 
as  a  highly-colored  fluid ;  this  is  decanted,  and  the  opera- 
tion repeated  with  fresh  portions  of  water  so  long  as  this 
liquid  becomes  colored.  After  removing  all  the  water,  the 
mixture  is  to  be  slightly  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  trans- 
ferred to  a  small  dish,  and  evaporated  to  dryness  on  a  water- 
bath;  the  residue  is  stirred  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  pure 
water;  the  solution,  after  filtration,  if  necessary,  is  rendered 
slightly  alkaline  by  potassa,  and  again  agitated  with  pure 
chloroform,  which  will  now  usually  separate,  and  may  be 
evaporated  as  before  mentioned. 

The  method  of  dialysis  has  been  recommended  by  some 
authorities  as  well  adapted  to  the  separation  of  strychnia 
from  complex  organic  liquids.  The  details  of  this  process 
have  already  been  given  (p.  113).  The  concentrated  solution 


STRYCHNIA. — DETECTION   IN   THE   TISSUES   AND   BLOOD.    431 

prepared  from  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  as  before  ex- 
plained (p.  428),  are  put  into  a  dialyser,  which  is  floated  in  a 
vessel  of  water  containing  four  or  five  times  the  bulk  of  the 
former.  After  twenty-four  hours,  the  diffusate  is  transferred  to 
a  porcelain  capsule,  evaporated  to  dryness  on  a  water-bath, 
and  the  residue  examined,  as  before.  We  have  no  personal 
experience  with  this  process ;  but  some  carefully-conducted 
experiments  by  Wbrmley,  as  well  as  by  others,  go  to  show 
that  it  is  not  so  thorough  or  exhaustive  as  the  ordinary  one 
by  chloroform,  before  explained. 

Detection  in  the  tissues  and  blood. — There  is  no  longer  any 
doubt  that  strychnia  is  absorbed  into  the  circulation,  and 
deposited  in  the  organs,  just  like  arsenic  or  antimony,  and 
that  the  absorbed  poison  may  be  detected  in  the  solids  of  the 
body,  and  likewise  in  the  blood.  The  rapidity  with  which  it 
is  absorbed  is  shown  in  a  case  mentioned  by  Taylor  (Prin. 
and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  p.  414),  where  a  man  took 
five  grains  of  strychnia  by  mistake,  and  died  in  half  an  hour. 
The  analyst  discovered  in  the  stomach  a  quantity  of  the 
poison,  estimated  at  one  grain  ;  it  was  also  detected  in  small 
quantities  in  the  liver  and  in  the  tongue.  This  case  shows 
that  within  half  an  hour  four-fifths  of  the  poison  had  been 
removed  from  the  stomach  (or  at  least  could  not  be  detected 
there  by  chemical  means),  and  that  in  that  period  it  had  been 
diffused  and  distributed  through  the  body.  It  would  appear, 
however,  that  there  is  much  variation  in  this  respect.  Thus, 
Prof.  Casper  reports  a  case  of  poisoning  from  five  or  six 
grains  of  strychnia.  The  deceased  lived  three  hours  and  a 
half,  and  on  analysis  after  death  three  grains  of  the  poison 
were  extracted  from  the  stomach;  but  none  was  detected 
either  in  the  tissues  or  blood  (Horn's  Yierteljahr.  fur  Gericht. 
Med.,  Jul.,  1864,  p.  7).  In  this  respect,  strychnia  is  simply 
on  a  par  with  the  other  poisons,  in  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
there  is  often  a  failure  to  detect  their  presence  in  the  tissues 
and  organs  of  the  body  after  death,  under  circumstances  that 
might  have  been  regarded  as  favorable  for  so  doing. 

The  process  to  be  pursued  is  the  following.  The  organs  to 
be  examined  should  be  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and,  together 
with  the  fluid,  digested  with  strong  alcohol,  acidulated  with 


432  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

sulphuric  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  about  eight  drops  of  the 
concentrated  acid  to  each  fluidounce  of  the  mixture.  It 
should  he  kept  at  the  temperature  of  about  180°  F.  for 
half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  and,  after  cooling,  strained,  fil- 
tered, and  concentrated  as  before  directed  (p.  428).  The 
residue  is  next  to  be  nearly  neutralized  by  caustic  potassa, 
care  being  taken,  however,  to  maintain  a  decided  acid  re- 
action, then  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evaporated  on  the  water- 
bath  nearly  to  dryness.  To  the  cooled  residue  a  drachm  or 
two  of  strong  alcohol  is  added  and  thoroughly  stirred  with 
it :  this  dissolves  out  the  sulphate  of  strychnia,  leaving  the 
sulphate  of  potassa  and  organic  matters.  The  alcoholic  so- 
lution is  now  filtered,  evaporated  to  almost  drj*ness,  the 
residue  stirred  with  a  little  water,  rendered  alkaline  by  po- 
tassa, and  finally  agitated  with  chloroform,  which  deposits 
the  alkaloid,  if  present,  on  evaporation. 

Prof.  Taylor  recommends  the  use  of  alcohol  and  acetic  add, 
in  these  cases,  for  the  extraction  of  the  strychnia;  and  also 
ammonia  as  the  preferable  alkali.  The  impure  residue  ob- 
tained from  the  first  chloroform  or  ether  evaporation  is  to  be 
purified  by  washing  it  with  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid, 
adding  water,  neutralizing  by  ammonia,  and  again  agitating 
with  chloroform.  By  this  process  he  detected  strychnia  in 
the  liver  of  a  person  who  died  from  this  poison,  although  this 
organ  was  in  a  highly  putrescent  state  (loc.  cit.t  p.  413). 

A  somewhat  similar  process  has  been  employed  for  detect- 
ing strychnia  in  the  blood.  About  four  to  six  ounces  of  this 
fluid  should  be  used  for  the  analysis,  which  is  rather  compli- 
cated and  tedious.  The  blood  is  first  treated  with  water, 
alcohol,  and  sulphuric  acid :  the  precise  quantity  of  the  latter 
varies  for  different  specimens  of  blood;  if  the  acid  is  not  in 
sufficient  quantity  it  fails  to  separate  the  strychnia,  all  of 
which  will  be  apt  to  be  retained  by  the  solid  albuminous 
matters.  Enough  of  the  acid  should  be  used  to  merely  sepa- 
rate a  portion  of  the  solid  matters.  By  adopting  this  method, 
Dr.  Wormley  (loc.  cit.,  p.  589)  succeeded  in  recovering  strych- 
nia from  the  blood  of  six  cats  and  of  two  dogs,  poisoned  by 
comparatively  small  doses  (as  half  a  grain).  In  two  of  the 
cases,  death  took  place  in  three  and  six  minutes  respectively, 


POISONING   BY'  STRYCHNIA. — FAILURE   TO    DETECT.         433 

which  shows  the  extreme  rapidity  with  which  this  poison  is 
absorbed. 

Detection  in  the  urine. — The  urine  should  be  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid,  and  evaporated  on  a  water-bath  to  the  consistency 
of  syrup.  When  cooled,  this  should  be  stirred  with  about  an 
ounce  of  pure  alcohol,  the  solution  filtered,  the  solids  washed 
and  pressed,  and  all  the  liquids  evaporated  to  near  dryness. 
The  residue  is  to  be  stirred  with  a  little  pure  water,  filtered, 
if  necessary,  mixed  with  caustic  potassa  in  excess,  and  agi- 
tated with  chloroform  as  usual. 

Failure  to  detect. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that  cases  of 
strychnia-poisoning  occur,  where  the  most  careful  chemical 
analysis  fails  to  detect  it  after  death,  and  that,  too,  under  ap- 
parently the  most  favorable  circumstances.  The  causes' that 
interfere  with  the  chemical  detection  of  poisons  have  already 
been  explained  (ante,  p.  70).  Of  some  of  these  failures  in  re- 
gard to  strychnia  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  perfectly  satisfactory 
explanation,  whilst  in  others  the  reasons  may  be  sufficiently 
obvious.  The  mere  fact  of  the  putrefaction'  of  the  body  is  no 
obstacle  to  the  chemical  analysis,  as  has  been  shown  in 
numerous  instances,  in  some  of  which  the  poison  has  been 
recovered  months  after  death  and  when  the  material  was  in 
quite  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposition.  In  the  cele- 
brated case  of  Cook,  who  was  poisoned  by  Palmer,  in  1856, 
there  was  a  failure  to  discover  the  poison  in  the  stomach 
by  Dr.  Taylor ;  but  this  seems  to  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  the  stomach  had  been  tampered  with 
before  coming  into  his  hands:  it  had  actually  been  cut  open 
and  the  contents  lost!  The  above  authority  mentions  the 
case  of  Mrs.  Salter,  who  died  from  taking  strychnia  in  two 
or  three  hours,  but  the  most  careful  examination  of  the 
stomach  and  liver  by  Mr.  Horsley,  of  Cheltenham,  led  to  a 
negative  result.  The  failure  here  was  ascribed  to  the  rapid 
absorption  and  elimination  of  the  poison  before  death.  lu 
1861,  the  author  examined  the  body  of  a  woman  poisoned, 
it  was  alleged,  by  about  six  grains  of  strychnia:  she  survived 
the  dose  for  the  rather  unusual  period  of  six  hours.  Six 
weeks  after  death  the  body  was  exhumed,  and  was  found 
to  be  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  and  very  rigid.  The 


434  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

stomach  and  bowels  were  examined  two  weeks  later.  No 
trace  of  the  poison  was  discovered,  either  by  the  bitter  taste 
of  the  ultimate  extract,  or  by  the  color  test,  although  several 
careful  and  separate  analyses  were  made  of  the  stomach  and 
a  portion  of  the  intestines.  Evidently,  the  poison  had  either 
disappeared  from  these  organs  by  elimination,  or  some  inter- 
ference had  occurred  to  obscure  the  usual  reactions.  In  order 
to  be  sure  of  the  accuracy  of  the  process  employed,  we  made 
trial  with  it  on  one-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  min- 
gled with  a  pint  of  complex  organic  matters, — animal  and 
vegetable, — and  succeeded  without  difficulty  in  recovering 
the  alkaloid  (see  p.  418). 

BRUCIA. — Brucia  is  the  other  alkaloid  generally  found  asso- 
ciated with  strychnia  in  the  different  species  of  Strychnos. 
In  the  S.  nux  vomica  it  occurs  in  greater  quantity  in  the  bark 
(false  Angiisiura  bark)  than  in  the  seeds,  which  is  the  reverse 
in  the  case  of  strychnia. 

Properties. — Brucia  is  found  in  the  shops  both  as  a  white 
powder  and  in  the  form  of  colorless,  prismatic  crystals.  It 
is  more  soluble  both  in  water  and  in  ether,  than  strychnia. 
In  chloroform  and  absolute  alcohol  it  is  very  freely  soluble. 
It  is  insoluble  in  the  fixed  alkalies,  and  almost  so  in  ammo- 
nia. It  has  an  intensely  bitter  taste.  It  forms  soluble  salts 
with  the  acids.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  and 
its  salts,  imparting  to  them  a  faint  rose  color.  Bichromate  of 
potassa  and  the  other  oxidizing  bodies  used  for  the  color  test 
of  strychnia,  when  stirred  in  the  sulphuric  acid  solution, 
merely  impart  to  it  a  yellowish  color,  which  soon  becomes 
greenish :  there  is  no  appearance  of  the  color-reactions  of 
strychnia.  Hydrochloric  acid  causes  no  change  of  color. 
Nitric  acid  produces,  with  a  fragment  of  brucia,  a  deep  blood- 
red  color,  more  intense  than  with  morphia;  this  slowly  fades 
to  yellow. 

The  poisonous  properties  of  brucia  are  similar  in  kind  to 
those  of  strychnia,  but  much  inferior  in  degree.  They  are 
estimated  to  be  from  one-twelfth  to  one-sixth  weaker.  As 
cases  of  poisoning  by  this  alkaloid  have  occurred,  and  as  the 
symptoms  resemble  precisely  those  occasioned  by  strychnia, 


POISONING   BY   BRUCIA. — TESTS.  435 

although  more  slowly  developed,  the  toxicologist  should  be 
on  his  guard  against  being  deceived,  in  making  a  medico- 
legal  investigation,  in  the  event  of  his  notytiscovering  strychnia 
by  the  use  of  the  color  test.  In  such  a  case,  it  will  be  always 
proper  for  him  to  employ  the  proper  reagents  for  brucia. 

Tests. — (1)  The  most  characteristic  test  for  brucia  is  nitric 
acid  and  chloride  of  tin.  A  fragment  of  this  alkaloid,  or  the 
dried  solid  residue  from  the  chloroform  or  ether  solution, 
if  touched  with  a  drop  or  two  of  strong  nitric  acid,  instantly 
assumes  a  deep  blood-red  tint,  and  speedily  dissolves  into 
a  similarly-colored  solution.  If  this  be  heated,  the  color 
changes  to  a  yellow.  If,  after  cooling,  a  drop  of  the  solution 
of  protochloride  of  tin  be  added,  the  mixture  immediately  ac- 
quires a  beautiful  purple  color,  which  is  discharged  by  an 
excess  of  the  tin  solution,  or  of  nitric  acid.  The  heating  of 
the  nitric  acid  solution  is  essential  if  the  quantity  of  brucia 
is  very  small,  in  order  to  obtain  the  reaction  of  the  tin  com- 
pound. This  is  a  highly  satisfactory  test  for  brucia  when  it 
is  carefully  performed.  The  deep-red  color  produced  by 
nitric  acid  on  morphia  can  hardly  lead  to  any  error,  inas- 
much as  the  addition  of  the  tin  salt  to  the  latter  causes  no 
purple  color,  but  at  most  changes  it  to  a  yellow. 

(2)  Sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate  ofpotassa. — This  test  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  former.  On  applying  strong  sulphuric  acid 
to  brucia,  as  already  mentioned,  a  faint  rose  color  is  produced, 
which,  on  the  addition  of  a  small  crystal  of  nitre,  changes  to 
a  deep  orange-red.  If  the  quantity  of  brucia  be  very  minute 
— as  one  ten-thousandth  of  a  grain — the  color  produced  will 
be  rather  more  faint,  though  distinctly  orange.  (3)  Potassa 
and  ammonia  yield  with  not  very  dilute  solutions  of  brucia 
beautiful  tufted  crystals.  (4)  Sulphocyanide  of  potassium  pre- 
cipitates from  a  brucia  solution  an  amorphous  matter,  which 
after  a  while  assumes  a  beautiful  crystalline  form.  Other 
reagents  are  ferricyanide  of  potassium,  bichloride  of  mercury, 
bichloride  of  platinum,  carbazotic  acid,  etc. 

The  application  of  brucia  to  frogs  is  followed  by  tetanic 
convulsions  of  precisely  the  same  character  as  those  occa- 
sioned by  strychnia,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  relative 
amount  of  the  two  alkaloids  required  to  produce  the  result. 


436  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  separation  of  bruciafrom  organic  mixtures  is  effected  in 
a  manner  similar  to  that  employed  for  strychnia  (ante,  p.  428), 
If  the  nitric  acid  an^l  chloride  of  tin  test  fails  to  produce  the 
characteristic  colors  in  the  ultimate  extract,  the  other  testa 
will  not  succeed.  Brucia  has  been  detected  in  the  blood  of 
animals  poisoned  by  it. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

ORDER    III.  — CEREBRO-SPINAL    NEUROTICS. 

DELIRIANTS. 

THIS  subdivision  of  the  Neurotics  has  received  the  name 
of  Deliriants,  or  Delirifacients,  for  the  reason  that  active  de- 
lirium constitutes  one  of  their  prominent  symptoms  in  the 
human  subject.  They  also  occasion  other  symptoms  in  com- 
mon, such  as  illusion  of  the  senses  and  extreme  dilatation 
of  the  pupil,  heat  and  dryness  of  the  throat,  a  flushed  face, 
and  frequently  a  redness  of  the  skin  and  of  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  throat.  Occasionally  there  is  irritation  of  the  stom- 
ach and  bowels,  with  dysuria,  or  suppression  of  urine.  They 
all  belong  to  the  same  natural  order,  Solanaceae,  and  also  to  the 
same  Linnaean  class  and  order,  Pentandria  Monogynia.  They 
comprise  Belladonna,  Stramonium,  Hyoscyamus,  and  differ- 
ent species  of  Solanum.  From  their  physiological  property 
of  dilating  the  pupil,  they  have  also  received  the  name  of 
Mydriatics. 

SECTION  I. 

POISONING   BY   BELLADONNA. — ATROPIA. 

BELLADONNA  (Deadly  Nightshade}.  —  The  leaves,  berries, 
seeds,  and  root  of  the  Atropa  Belladonna,  or  Deadly  Nightshade, 
are  all  poisonous,  and  produce  identical  symptoms.  The 
leaves  and  root  are  the  parts  used  in  medicine.  Children 
are  frequently  poisoned  from  eating  the  berries. 

The  symptoms  are  as  follows.     A  sense  of  heat  and  ex- 


POISONING   BY   BELLADONNA. — SYMPTOMS.  437 

treme  dry  ness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  with  difficulty  of 
swallowing,  nausea,  vomiting,  giddiness,  impaired  vision,  a 
flushed  face,  sparkling  eyes,  delirium  of  an  excited  maniacal 
character,  spectral  illusions,  convulsions,  followed  by  stupor 
and  coma.  The  pupils  are  extremely  dilated,  arid  insensible 
to  light.  Cases  have  been  reported  where  the  pupils'were 
contracted  during  sleep,  but  dilated  in  the  waking  state. 
Irritation  of  the  urinary  organs  is  not  uncommon,  such  as 
strangury,  suppression  of  urine,  and  haematuria.  A  scarlet 
eruption  on  the  skin,  resembling  that  of  scarlatina,  is  fre- 
quently observed. 

The  delirium  is  of  a  peculiar  character.  The  illusions  are 
sometimes  pleasing,  exciting  violent  laughter ;  at  other  times 
they  produce  furious  actions.  There  is  loss  of  consciousness. 
The  symptoms  generally  manifest  themselves  within  one  or 
two  hours  after  swallowing  the  poison ;  but  in  poisoning 
from  the  berries  they  may  be  delayed  for  several  hours.  la 
cases  of  recovery,  the  symptoms  are  sometimes  very  long  in 
disappearing. 

The  following  case  is  quoted  from  the  "New  York  Journal 
of  Medicine,"  vol.  viii.  p.  284.  A  man  ate  a  pie  made  with 
the  berries  of  belladonna  and  apples.  A  few  minutes  after- 
wards he  complained  of  feeling  drowsy ;  the  lethargy  soon 
increased ;  his  countenance  changed  color;  the  pupils  be- 
came dilated,  and  he  experienced  a  coppery  taste  in  the 
mouth.  On  going  up-stairs  he  staggered,  and  upon  entering 
his  room  he  fell,  and  became  insensible.  He  subsequently 
became  delirious  and  convulsed,  and  died  the  following 
morning.  A  child  to  whom  a  portion  of  the  pie  had  been 
given  died  on  the  same  day. 

The  following  instance  of  recovery  is  related  by  Dr.  Gray 
(K  Y.  Jour,  of  Med.,  Sept.,  1845,  p.  182).  A  child  between 
three  and  four  years  of  age  swallowed  from  eight  to  twelve 
grains  of  the  extract  of  belladonna.  About  half  an  hour 
afterwards,  the  expression  of  the  patient  was  that  of  terror ; 
the  pupils  were  widely  dilated,  and  immovable;  the  con- 
junctivas highly  injected;  and  the  whole  eye  prominent  and 
very  brilliant.  The  face,  upper  extremities,  and  trunk  of 
the  body  exhibited  a  diffused  scarlet  efflorescence,  studded 


438  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

with  numerous  papillae,  like  the  rash  of  scarlatina.  The  skin 
was  hot  and  dry;  pulse  increased  in  force  and  frequency; 
respiration  anxious  and  stridulous.  There  was  a  constant 
but  unsuccessful  attempt  at  deglutition,  with  spasmodic  ac- 
tion of  the  muscles  of  the  throat  and  pharynx;  and  parox- 
ysms of  violent  motion,  with  rapid,  automatic  movements, 
attended  with  convulsive  laughter.  Under  the  action  of  an 
emetic,  the  alarming  symptoms  passed  off  in  about  three 
hours,  and  the  child  recovered,  with  the  exception  of  a  mod- 
erate diarrhoea,  and  a  slight  enlargement  of  the  pupil. 

The  external  application  of  belladonna,  as  also  its  adminis- 
tration as  an  enema,  has  occasioned  serious  and  even  fatal 
results.  A  case  is  related  in  which  the  injection  of  the  de- 
coction of  the  root  caused  death  in  five  hours;  and  another, 
in  which  only  two  grains  of  the  extract,  administered  in  like 
manner,  produced  alarming  symptoms.  Dr.  Lyman  relates 
an  instance  in  which  the  application  of  a  small  belladonna 
plaster  to  the  chest  of  a  nervous  woman  produced  all  the 
usual  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  that  substance,  from  which 
she  did  not  entirely  recover  for  four  or  five  days.  Cases  in 
which  a  lotion  of  belladonna  has  produced  similar  results 
are  mentioned  in  the  "  Chemical  News"  (Lond.,  Nov.,  1866, 
p.  216). 

The  botanical  characters  of  the  leaves,  fruit,  and  seeds  of 
belladonna  can  usually  be  detected  in  the  particles  remaining 
in  the  alimentary  canal  after  death.  The  seeds  are  very 
email,  of  an  oval  shape,  and  of  a  dark  color.  Under  a  low 
magnifier  they  present  a  honeycombed  surface.  The  hen- 
bane-seed, which  the  belladonna-seed  somewhat  resembles, 
exhibits  more  irregular  depressions.  The  purple  coloring- 
matter  of  the  berry  is  turned  green  by  alkalies. 

Atropia.  —  This  alkaloid  is  the  active  principle  of  bella- 
donna. It  is  a  very  powerful  poison,  producing  symptoms 
essentially  similar  to  those  already  described  as  resulting 
from  belladonna,  only  more  speedily.  Symptoms  of  poison- 
ing have  been  produced  by  the  application  of  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  atropia  to  the  eyes.  One-eighth  of  a  grain  injected 
beneath  the  skin  for  the  relief  of  sciatica,  caused  all  the 
symptoms  of  belladonna-poisoning.  Other  instances  are 


POISONING   BY  ATROPIA. — FATAL   DOSE.  439 

related  in  which  much  smaller  quantities — even  the  one- 
hundredth  of  a  grain — used  hypodermically,  produced  alarm- 
ing effects.  Employed  in  this  manner,  in  combination  with 
morphia,  its  activity  would  appear  to  be  in  some  manner 
modified.  The  author  habitually  uses,  in  his  practice,  a 
combination  of  one-fourth  of  a  grain  of  morphia  and  about 
one-fortieth  of  a  grain  of  atropia  by  hypodermic  injection ; 
and  he  has  never  witnessed  any  evidences  of  belladonna- 
poisoning  resulting. 

Fatal  results  may  occur  from  the  external  application  of 
atropia.  Dr.  Ploss,  of  Leipsic,  reports  a  case  in  which  an 
ointment  composed  of  fifteen  parts  of  sulphate  of  atropia  to 
seven  hundred  parts  of  lard,  applied  as  a  dressing  to  a  blis- 
tered surface  on  the  neck  of  a  man,  caused  death,  under  the 
most  violent  symptoms  of  belladonna-poisoning,  within  two 
hours.  (Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  April,  1865,  p.  541.) 

Fatal  dose. — This  has  not  been  absolutely  determined;  but, 
from  the  known  severe  effects  of  doses  less  than  one  grain, 
it  is  highly  probable  that  death  would  ensue  from  as  small 
a  quantity  as  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  grain,  provided  the 
proper  remedies  were  not  applied.  The  following  case  is  cited 
by  Worm  ley  from  the  "American  Journal  of  the  Medical 
Sciences,"  July,  1866,  p.  269.  A  stout,  healthy  man  swal- 
lowed from  one-sixth  to  one-quarter  of  a  grain  of  the  alkaloid 
in  solution.  An  hour  afterwards,  the  patient  was  in  a  fearful 
state  of  excitement;  the  tongue  was  swollen,  and  projected 
between  the  teeth,  and  he  incessantly  moved  it  and  his  lips 
in  a  stammering  manner,  but  without  emitting  a  single  intel- 
ligible sentence.  The  eyes  were  staring,  the  head  hot,  and 
the  countenance  livid ;  the  pupils  dilated  to  their  utmost  ex- 
tent, and  insensible  to  light.  The  pulse  was  rapid,  full,  and 
strong,  and  there  was  a  constant  but  ineffectual  attempt  to 
urinate.  During  the  following  hour  the  excitement  continu- 
ally increased,  when  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  one-fifth  of 
a  grain  of  acetate  of  morphia  into  the  right  temple  was  soon 
succeeded  by  a  state  of  calm.  After  two  hours  more,  the 
excitement  had  again  attained  almost  its  former  height;  but 
it  was  again  subdued  by  a  repetition  of  the  morphine  injec- 
tion. The  patient  now  gradually  recovered,  the  only  syrnp- 


440  MANUAL   OP  TOXICOLOGY. 

toms  remaining  twenty-four  hours  after  taking  the  poison 
being  extreme  weakness,  dryness  of  the  throat,  slight  twitch- 
ing of  the  limbs,  and  dilatation  of  the  pupils.  Dr.  Taylor 
also  records  a  case  from  the  "  Medical  Times  and  Gazette," 
July  6,  1865,  p.  34, — that  of  a  man  who  was  very  nearly 
killed  by  swallowing  a  grain  of  sulphate  of  atropia  in  solu- 
tion. He  did  not  fully  recover  for  a  fortnight ;  his  pupils 
continued  dilated  for  a  week,  and  for  several  days  there 
was  partial  paralysis  of  the  bladder. 

The  criminal  administration  of  atropia  is  a  rare  event.  A 
trial  for  murder  by  this  alkaloid  took  place  at  the  Manches- 
ter Lent  Assizes,  1872  (Reg.  v.  Steele).  The  prisoner,  who 
was  a  nurse  in  a  work-house,  was  charged  with  administering 
atropia  to  the  senior  surgeon,  Mr.  Harris,  and  thereby  causing 
his  death.  The  deceased  was  taken  suddenly  ill  after  his 
breakfast,  and  died  with  the  usual  symptoms  of  poisoning 
with  atropia  in  about  twelve  hours.  The  poison  was  detected 
in  the  body  by  Mr.  Calvert,  and  also  in  the  liquid  found  in 
the  room — a  solution  of  atropia  in  spirit.  Milk  was  the 
vehicle  through  which  it  was  taken.  As  sent  from  the 
kitchen,  this  contained  nothing  injurious,  but  that  found  in 
the  room  of  the  deceased  was  tasted  by  two  of  the  nurses, 
both  of  whom  suffered  from  poisoning  by  atropia.  Although 
the  prisoner  was  proved  to  have  had  a  strong  motive  for  the 
murder,  she  was  acquitted,  from  want  of  evidence  as  to  the 
fact  of  putting  the  poison  into  the  milk.  (Taylor's  Med. 
Jurisp.,  1873,  Am.  ed.,  p.  251.) 

The  diagnosis  of  poisoning  by  belladonna  or  atropia  is  not 
always  easy.  The  symptoms  strongly  resemble  those  caused 
by  stramonium  and  Jiyoscyamus.  The  dilatation  of  the 
pupils — one  of  the  most  characteristic  symptoms — may  be 
occasioned  by  other  causes.  There  seems  to  be  a  special 
tendency  to  the  elimination  from  the  system  of  the  active 
principle  (atropia)  by  the  kidney.  Prof.  Guy  states  (Forens. 
Med.,  p.  512),  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  John  Harley,  that  the 
presence  of  atropia  in  the  urine  can  be  readily  proved  within 
twenty  minutes  of  the  injection  under  the  skin  of  one  forty- 
eighth  to  one  ninety-sixth  of  a  grain,  by  the  action  of  the 
urine  on  the  eye.  Twelve  drops  out  of  eight  ounces  of  urine 


POISONING    BY   ATROPIA. — CHEMICAL   ANALYSIS.  441 

secreted  in  two  and  a  half  hours,  while  a  patient  is  under 
the  influence  of  one  forty-eighth  of  a  grain,  will  largely  dilate 
the  pupil,  and  will  maintain  it  in  that  state  for  several  hours. 

Treatment.  —  The  immediate  evacuation  of  the  stomach 
should  be  secured,  either  by  a  prompt  emetic  or  by  the 
stomach-pump.  No  chemical  antidote  is  known,  although 
various  substances  have  been  employed  with  this  view,  as 
tannin,  animal  charcoal,  iodine  in  iodide  of  potassium,  and 
hydrate  of  magnesia.  The  true  physiological  antidote  is  mor- 
phia, which  has  been  repeatedly  administered  subcutane- 
ously  with  the  happiest  result.  Under  the  head  of  OPIUM, 
we  have  already  remarked  upon  the  antagonism  between 
these  two  alkaloids  in  the  human  subject:  each  of  them 
eeems  to  be  antidotal  to  the  other,  at  least  to  a  certain 
degree. 

Morbid  lesions. — These  are  not  by  any  means  characteristic 
of  the  poison.  The  vessels  of  the  brain  are  more  or  less 
congested,  and  there  are  red  patches  in  the  pharynx  and 
oesophagus,  and  at  the  cardiac  end  of  the  stomach.  In  some 
cases  the  whole  gastro-enteric  membrane  has  been  found  of 
a  dark-purple  color,  probably  dyed  by  the  juice  of  the  ber- 
ries, and  portions  of  the  berries  and  some  of  the  seeds  have 
been  discovered  in  the  alimentary  canal,  or  in  the  stools. 
The  blood  is  usually  liquid  and  dark-colored. 

Chemical  analysis. — When  pure,  atropia  is  in  the  form  of 
white,  crystalline  tufts.  Its  taste  is  bitter  and  acrid.  It  is 
very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  chloroform.  Heated  on  porcelain,  it  easily  melts 
into  a  colorless  liquid.  It  sublimes  at  280°  F.  Its  sublimate 
is  less  distinctly  crystalline  than  either  morphia  or  strychnia. 
Its  color  is  not  changed  by  either  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muri- 
atic acid.  It  has  decided  basic  properties,  neutralizing  the 
strongest  acids,  and  forming  salts,  several  of  which  are  crys- 
tallizable.  Ammonia  added  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
atropia  does  not  separate  the  alkaloid  in  distinct  crystals,  as 
in  the  case  of  morphia  and  strychnia. 

Tannic  acid  precipitates  the  alkaloid  from  its  solutions ;  but 
the  most  effectual  precipitant,  according  to  Winckler,  is  the 
chloriodide  of  potassium  and  mercury,  which  throws  down  a 


442  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

dense,  white  precipitate  even  in  feeble  solutions.  By  the  use 
of  this  reagent  he  was  able  to  determine  the  proportion  of 
atropia  contained  in  the  powder  of  the  dry  leaves  and  root. 
In  the  leaves  the  alkaloid  varies  from  0.41  to  0.49  per  cent., 
and  in  the  root  it  amounts  to  0.48  per  cent.  (Phar.  Jour., 
June,  1872 ;  quoted  by  Taylor.)  Atropia  is  also  precipitated 
by  chloride  of  gold;  but,  unlike  strychnia,  it  is  not  precipitated 
by  sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  or  by  chromate  of  potassa. 
An  alcoholic  solution  of  carbazotic  acid  produces  in  a  solution 
of  a  salt  of  atropia  a  yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  which 
after  a  time  becomes  more  or  less  crystalline,  the  crystals 
being  in  the  form  of  transparent  plates  aggregated  together. 
According  to  "Wormley,  one-thousandth  of  a  grain  will  give 
a  distinct  crystalline  deposit  under  the  microscope  when 
treated  as  above.  This  authority  considers  bromine  in  hydro- 
bromic  acid  to  be  the  most  characteristic  test  for  atropia. 
The  precipitate  at  first  is  amorphous,  and  of  a  yellow  color; 
but  in  a  little  time  it  becomes  crystalline.  It  is  quite  in- 
soluble in  acetic  acid,  and  very  slightly  so  in  either  of  the 
strong  mineral  acids.  So  small  a  quantity  as  one  ten-thou- 
sandth to  one  twenty-tive-thousandth  of  a  grain  will  yield 
with  this  reagent  a  satisfactory  result.  (Micro-Chemistry  of 
Poisons,  p.  631.)  Although  this  reagent  produces  yellow 
precipitates  with  the  other  alkaloids,  yet  they  all,  with  the 
exception  of  that  from  meconin,  remain  amorphous;  while 
the  latter  deposit  differs  from  that  of  atropia  in  its  form. 
This  reagent  likewise  produces  with  daturia  (the  active  prin- 
ciple of  stramonium)  a  precisely  similar  precipitate ;  and 
this  latter  alkaloid  is  regarded  by  Wormley  and  others  as 
being  identical  with  atropia. 

Examination  of  organic  mixtures  and  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 
— The  separation  of  atropia  from  complex  organic  mixtures 
is  a  different  process.  The  one  recommended  by  Prof. 
Wormley  is  a  modification  of  the  method  of  Stas,  and  is  de- 
serving of  confidence.  The  solids  having  been  properly  cut 
up,  the  mixture  is  treated  with  an  equal  volume  of  strong 
alcohol,  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  gently 
heated  for  about  half  an  hour.  When  cool,  it  is  strained 
through  muslin,  the  residue  wathed  with  alcohol,  and  all  the 


POISONING   BY  ATROPIA. — PHYSIOLOGICAL   TEST.  445 

liquids  concentrated  on  a  water-bath  to  a  email  bulk.  Ify 
during  the  evaporation,  much  insoluble  matter  separates,  it 
is  removed  by  a  strainer.  The  cool,  concentrated  liquid  is 
passed  through  a  moistened  filter,  then  transferred  to  a  test- 
tube,  and  washed  by  agitating  it  with  twice  its  volume  of 
pure  ether,  which,  after  standing,  is  decanted  and  reserved 
for  future  examination.  This  washing  with  ether  is  again 
repeated — the  object  being  to  remove  foreign  matters.  The 
aqueous  solution  is  now  rendered  slightly  alkaline  by  potassa, 
and  thoroughly  agitated  with  twice  its  volume  of  pure  chlo- 
roform, which  will  dissolve  the  liberated  alkaloid,  if  present. 
After  complete  separation  of  the  liquids,  the  chloroform  is 
removed,  and  allowed  to  evaporate  spontaneously  on  a  watch- 
glass.  The  evaporated  residue  should  be  dissolved  in  a  few 
drops  of  water  containing  a  trace  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
examined  by  the  different  reagents.  The  bromine  test  should 
first  be  tried  on  a  single  drop  of  the  solution :  if  it  fails  to 
yield  the  characteristic  reaction,  the  other  tests  may  also  be 
expected  to  yield  negative  results. 

In  case  the  bromine  test  gives  a  precipitate  which  will  not 
crystallize,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  solution  is  diluted 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  then  rendered  alkaline  by 
potassa,  and  the  alkaloid  again  extracted  with  chloroform. 
On  evaporating,  the  alkaloid  is  usually  left  in  the  crystalline 
state,  which  may  be  dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  water  and 
examined  as  before.  Dr.  Wormley  was  able,  by  the  use  of 
this  method,  to  detect  atropia  in  the  stomachs  of  animals 
poisoned  by  comparatively  small  quantities  of  fluid  extract 
of  belladonna ;  and  also  in  their  blood  (loc.  cit.,  p.  636). 

The  physiological  test  consists  in  the  application  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  ultimate  extract  to  the  eye,  either  of  man  or  of 
one  of  the  lower  animals.  Carnivorous  animals  are  the 
most  susceptible  to  its  influence.  According  to  Headland 
(Action  of  Medicines,  p.  294),  one  three-thousandth  of  a  grain, 
dropped  in  solution  into  the  eye  of  an  adult,  will  produce 
the  characteristic  effect.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  the  other  narcotics  of  this  class  will  produce  a  similar 
impression. 


444  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

SECTION   II. 
I 

POISONING   BY   STRAMONIUM. — DATURIA. 

The  Datura  stramonium,  called  also  Thorn-apple,  and  James- 
town or  Jimson  weed,  is  a  very  common  plant,  abounding  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  It  grows  very  freely  on  the 
commons  and  waste  grounds  contiguous  to  towns.  Other 
varieties  are  found  in  India  and  in  other  countries.  All  parts 
of  the  plant  are  poisonous,  but  especially  the  seeds  and  fruit. 
The  seeds  and  leaves  are  employed  in  medicine.  It  owes  its 
activity  to  a  poisonous  alkaloid  named  daturia. 

Numerous  instances  of  poisoning  by  stramonium  have 
been  recorded;  but  they  have  usually  been  the  result  of 
accident,  and  chiefly  in  cases  of  children,  who  have  plucked 
and  eaten  the  seeds. 

Symptoms. — These  are  very  similar  to  those  produced  by 
belladonna.  There  is  the  same  dryness  of  the  throat,  with 
difficulty  of  swallowing;  the  dilated  and  insensible  pupil;  the 
incoherent  and  violent  delirium  ;  the  headache,  nausea,  and 
vomiting;  the  blindness,  ringing  in  the  ears,  and  vertigo; 
the  spectral  illusions,  and  trembling  of  the  limbs,  followed 
by  stupor  and  coma.  Sometimes  there  are  convulsions  and 
paralysis,  together  with  a  scarlet  eruption  on  the  skin.  Dr. 
H.  Y.  Evans,  of  Philadelphia,  has  reported  (Amer.  Jour. 
Med.  Sci.,  July,  1866)  an  instance  where  seven  children, 
aged  from  six  to  nine  years,  had  each  swallowed,  it  was 
stated,  only  ten  of  the  seeds.  Four  hours  after,  the  pupils  of 
all  were  dilated  to  the  utmost.  In  three  of  the  children,  who 
had  swallowed  the  seeds  without  chewing  them,  the  effects, 
which  were  slight,  soon  passed  off;  but  in  the  four  other 
cases,  in  which  the  seeds  had  been  chewed,  there  were,  in 
addition  to  dilatation  of  the  pupils  and  perverted  vision,  con- 
fusion of  intellect,  deafness,  intoxication,  slow  respiration, 
full  pulse,  and  general  loss  of  control  over  the  muscles  of  the 
body.  These  symptoms  were  succeeded  in  a  few  hours  by 
coma,  and  in  one  case  by  violent  delirium.  Emetics  having 
failed  to  act,  the  stomach-pump  was  used.  On  the  third 
day  all  remnants  of  the  poisoning  had  completely  disap- 
peared, the  pupils  being  the  last  to  yield. 


POISONING   BY   STRAMONIUM. — SYMPTOMS.  445 

Dr.  Calkins  reports  a  case  (Amer.  Med.  Monthly,  Sept. 
1856,  p.  220)  where  a  child,  four  years  of  age,  swallowed 
over  a  tablespoonful  of  the  seeds,  and  recovered  after  vomit- 
ing and  purging,  although  they  had  remained  in  the  stom- 
ach upwards  of  seven  hours.  Death  may  take  place  even 
although  the  whole  of  the  seeds  have  been  ejected,  provided 
they  have  remained  in  the  body  for  a  sufficiently  long  period 
to  allow  of  the  absorption  of  the  active  principle.  A  case 
of  this  character  is  given  by  Mr.  Duffin  in  the  "Medical 
Gazette,"  vol.  xv.  p.  194, — that  of  his  own  child,  aged  two 
years,  who  swallowed  about  one  hundred  seeds  of  stra- 
monium, without  chewing  them.  In  the  course  of  an  hour 
the  usual  symptoms  were  manifested,  such  as  flushed  face, 
dilated  pupils,  incoherent  talking,  wild  spectral  illusions, 
and  furious  delirium.  In  two  hours  and  a  half  she  lost 
her  voice  and  the  power  of  swallowing.  The  child  died  in 
twenty-four  hours,  although  twenty  seeds  were  ejected  by 
vomiting,  and  eighty  by  purging. 

In  some  instances  the  singular  movements  would  appear 
to  be  owing  to  the  perverted  vision,  which  prevents  the  indi- 
vidual from  properly  appreciating  the  distance  of  objects. 

The  infusion  of  the  leaves  has  likewise  occasioned  poi- 
sonous effects ;  as  has  also  the  alcoholic  decoction  of  the 
seeds.  An  overdose  of  the  extract — an  officinal  preparation 
— has  produced  death.  Even  the  external  application  of  the 
bruised  leaves  to  the  sound  skin  has  given  rise  to  the  symp- 
toms of  poisoning ;  and  Dr.  Beck  states  (Med.  Jurisp.,  ii.  p. 
877)  that  the  bruising  of  the  leaves  in  a  mortar  has  caused 
dilatation  of  the  pupil  and  irritation  of  the  skin. 

In  India,  the  datura  is  much  employed  by  the  Thugs  and 
other  professional  poisoners,  not  so  much  for  the  purpose 
of  destroying  life,  as  with  the  view  of  rendering  the  victims 
insensible,  and  consequently  a  more  easy  prey  to  robbery. 
According  to  Dr.  Chevers  (Med.  Jurisp.  for  India,  in  Med. 
Times  and  Gazette,  Feb.,  1871),  the  Indian  varieties  are  the 
D.  alba,  D.fastuosa,  and  D.  ferox.  Both  the  leaves  and  seeds 
are  used,  but  particularly  the  latter,  which  are  prepared  by 
parching,  decorticating,  and  pounding  them,  and  in  some 
instances  by  distilling  from  them  an  essence.  The  powder 

29 


446  MANUAL 'OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

is  mixed  with  curry  or  other  food  or  drink  of  the  intended 
victim,  or  given  along  with  tobacco  to  smoke;  while  the 
essence  is  added  to  the  sweetmeats  so  commonly  used  in  the 
East.  Death  seldom  results  from  the  administration  of  the 
poison  ;  but  it  is  followed  by  very  rapid  insensibility,  pre- 
ceded by  delirium.  The  effects  vary  according  to  the  dose 
taken:  sometimes  stupor  only  is  the  result;  at  other  times 
complete  insensibility  ensues.  When  the  victim  recovers 
from  the  immediate  effects  of  the  drug,  he  remains  for  some 
time  in  a  fatuitous  or  delirious  condition,  often  wandering 
about  in  a  sort  of  intoxicated  state,  and  completely  oblivious 
of  what  had  occurred. 

Post-mortem,  appearances. — In  some  cases  there  is  congestion 
of  the  brain,  with  effusion  of  bloody  serum  into  the  ventri- 
cles; patches  of  extravasation  of  blood  in  the  stomach; 
marks  of  diffused  inflammation  over  its  lining  membrane; 
congestion  of  the  lungs;  and  the  remains  of  the  poisonous 
seeds  in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  In  other  cases  nothing 
of  an  abnormal  character  has  been  discovered.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  the  lesions  alone  can  lead  to  no  conclusions  as  to 
the  real  cause  of  death. 

The  treatment  is  the  same  as  that  recommended  for  poison- 
ing by  belladonna.  After  the  thorough  evacuation  of  the 
poison,  the  hypodermic  injection  of  morphia  affords  the  most 
reliable  means  of  relief:  it  should  be  persevered  in  until  its 
effects  are  manifested  by  the  contraction  of  the  pupils. 

Analysis. — The  seeds  are  of  a  light-brown  or  black  color, 
flattened,  kidney-shaped,  with  a  corrugated  surface.  They 
are  much  larger  than  those  .of  belladonna  or  henbane.  Ac- 
cording to  Prof.  Guy,  it  requires  one  hundred  and  twenty 
henbane-seeds,  and  ninety  of  belladonna,  to  weigh  one  grain; 
but  only  about  eight  stramonium-seeds.  There  is  no  known 
chemical  test  to  distinguish  daturia  from  atropia.  The  only 
possible  means  of  making  the  diagnosis  is  by  identifying  the 
seeds  or  portions  of  the  leaves,  by  their  physical  and  botanical 
properties. 

Daturia. — This  alkaloid  is  now  regarded  as  being  identical 
with  atropia.  The  two  are  similar  in  appearance,  chemical 
composition,  solubilities,  behavior  with  chemical  reagents, 


POISONING   BY   HYOSCYAMUS. — FATAL   DOSE.  447 

and  physiological  action.  The  method  of  procuring  daturia 
from  the  different  preparations  of  the  plant,  as  also  from 
organic  mixtures,  including  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  the 
blood,  and  the  urine,  is  precisely  similar  to  that  recommended 
under  the  head  of  ATROPIA,  p.  441.  The  carefully-conducted 
experiments  of  Prof.  Wormley  on  this  subject  would  seem 
to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  two  alkaloids. 

SECTION  III. 

POISONIKG  BY   HYOSCYAMUS. — HYOSCYAMIA. 

The  Henbane  plant  (Hyoscyamus  niger)  grows  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  The  leaves  are  officinal.  The  root  is  tapering, 
and  somewhat  resembles  a  small  parsnip,  for  which  it  has 
been  eaten  in  mistake.  The  seeds  somewhat  resemble  those 
of  belladonna,  but  are  rather  smaller:  they  are  of  a  dark 
color,  and  thickly  covered  with  ridges,  easily  recognized  by 
a  magnifier.  Both  the  root  and  the  seeds  produce  violent 
poisonous  effects,  which  strongly  resemble  those  of  bella- 
donna and  stramonium.  The  preparations  from  the  leaves 
(tincture  and  extract)  are  extremely  variable  in  strength : 
frequently  they  are  nearly,  or  quite,  inert.  The  activity  of 
the  plant  depends  upon  the  soil,  the  period  of  its  growth,  the 
time  of  its  collection,  and  the  mode  of  preparation. 

A  curious  instance  of  the  effects  of  this  narcotic  is  quoted 
by  Taylor  from  the  London  "Lancet,"  July  6,  1844,  p.  479. 
In  a  monastery,  where  the  roots  had  been  eaten  for  supper 
by  mistake,  the  monks  who  partook  of  them  were  seized 
in  the  night  with  the  most  wonderful  hallucinations,  so  that 
the  place  became  like  a  lunatic-asylum.  One  monk  rang 
the  bell  for  matins  at  twelve  o'clock  at  night ;  and  of  those 
of  the  fraternity  who  attended  the  summons,  some  could  not 
read,  some  read  what  was  not  in  the  book,  and  some  saw  the 
letters  running  about  the  page  like  so  many  ants. 

As  regards  the  fatal  dose,  we  have  no  positive  data :  the 
great  uncertainty  of  the  preparations  of  the  drug  as  found 
in  the  shops,  prevents  any  positive  determination  on  this 
point.  The  dose  of  the  officinal  tincture  is  from  half  a  drachm 
to  two  drachms;  but  Dr.  Burder  states  that  he  has  observed 


448  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

great  inconvenience  to  follow  from  a  dose  of  ten  minims 
repeated  every  six  hours  (Lancet,  July  6,  1844,  p.  480).  Dr. 
Cabot,  of  Boston,  gave  three  teaspoonful  doses  of  the  tinc- 
ture at  intervals  of  an  hour.  Ten  minutes  after  the  last 
dose,  the  face  began  to  swell,  and  became  red  and  polished ; 
the  eyes  were  closed,  and  the  patient  could  scarcely  speak, 
on  account  of  the  swelling  of  the  tongue  and  lips.  The  red 
discoloration  of  the  skin  extended  as  far  as  the  umbilicus, 
and  was  attended  with  intolerable  itching  and  burning  (Am. 
Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1851).  According  to  Wibmer,  twenty 
seeds  have  produced  complete  delirium;  and  the  same  writer 
states  that  in  one  instance  alarming  symptoms  were  caused 
by  seven  grains  of  the  extract.  Fatal  results  have  very  rarely 
occurred.  The  use  of  a  decoction  of  the  plant  as  an  injection 
has  been  attended  with  all  the  symptoms  of  apoplexy,  with 
the  exception  of  the  stertorous  breathing  (Orfila). 

Doubtless  there  may  be  an  idiosyncrasy  with  respect  to 
this  drug,  as  in  the  case  of  opium.  Dr.  J.  A.  McFerran,  of 
Philadelphia,  related  to  the  author  the  following  instance 
which  occurred  in  his  practice.  A  man,  aged  about  forty 
years,  affected  with  a  chronic  cough,  took  two  grains  of  the 
English  extract  of  hyoscyamus.  Within  fifteen  minutes  he 
was  completely  narcotized ;  he  had  widely-dilated  pupils, 
optical  illusions,  delirium,  dry  tongue  and  throat,  inability  to 
swallow,  and  disposition  to  stupor,  so  that  he  was  obliged  to 
be  kept  walking  about  to  prevent  his  falling  asleep.  On  the 
following  day,  his  physician,  scarcely  crediting  his  story,  ad- 
ministered to  him  one  grain  of  the  same  extract ;  and  within 
fifteen  minutes  the  same  symptoms  were  again  manifested, 
though  in  a  slighter  degree. 

Analysis. — When  the  vegetable  has  been  eaten,  it  can  be 
identified  only  by  the  physical  and  botanical  characters  of  the 
portions  discovered  in  the  alimentary  canal.  Hyoscyamia,  the 
active  principle,  is  an  alkaloid,  which  occurs  iu  white,  silky 
crystals,  inodorous  when  pure,  but,  as  usually  prepared,  hav- 
ing a  disagreeable  odor,  like  that  of  tobacco,  and  an  acrid 
taste.  It  is  very  difficult  to  isolate.  There  is  no  character- 
istic chemical  test  for  it.  Its  effect  in  causing  dilatation  of 
the  pupil,  when  applied  to  the  eye,  would  not  distinguish  it 


POISONING   BY   SOLANUM   NIGRUM.  449 

from  either  atropia  or  daturia.  According  to  Dr.  Harley,  it 
speedily  passes  into  the  urine,  after  being  swallowed  ;  and 
it  may  be  detected  in  this  secretion  by  shaking  it  up  with 
chloroform,  evaporating  the  chloroform  solution  to  dryness, 
and  applying  the  extract  to  the  eye. 


SECTION  IV. 

POISONING    BY   SOLANUM. — SOLANIA. 

Three  species  of  the  genus  Solarium  are  usually  referred  to 
in  the  books  as  possessing  poisonous  properties :  these  are 
the  S.  dulcamara,  Bittersweet,  or  Woody  Nightshade;  the  S. 
nigrum,  or  Garden  Nightshade;  and  the  S.  tuberosum,  or  the 
common  Potato.  They  all  contain  a  common  active  alkaloid 
principle — Solania,  which  in  its  physiological  effects  closely 
resembles  the  alkaloids  existing  in  the  other  members  of 
the  class  Solanacese. 

The  Solatium  dulcamara,  or  Bittersweet,  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain,  and  is  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  The  dried  stems 
are  officinal.  Its  purple  flowers  and  bright-red  berries  are 
sometimes  eaten  by  children,  on  whom  they  act  poisouously. 
They  proved  fatal  to  a  boy  four  years  of  age,  while  two 
older  sisters  who  ate  them  at  the  same  time  escaped  with 
trivial  symptoms.  The  fatal  case  was  marked  by  vomiting 
and  purging,  convulsions  and  insensibility  alternating,  and 
death  in  convulsions  in  thirty-six  hours  after  swallowing 
them.  In  two  other  instances,  an  unknown  number  of  the 
berries  proved  fatal  to  two  children.  The  dried  stems,  which 
are  employed  in  medicine,  possess  extremely  feeble  narcotic 
properties. 

The  Solarium  nigrum,  or  Garden  Nightshade,  produces  white 
flowers  and  black  berries.  Its  leaves  and  berries,  when  eaten 
by  children,  have  given  rise  to  symptoms  of  an  acrid,  nar- 
cotic nature.  An  instance  cited  by  Tardieu,from  M.  Magne, 
exhibited  the  following  effects.  Two  children  about  three  and 
a  half  years  old  ate  the  leaves,  and  within  two  hours  began 
to  show  signs  of  poisoning.  One  died  in  twelve  hours,  after 
having  exhibited  pain  in  the  abdomen,  with  nausea,  vomit- 
ing, and  restlessness,  followed  by  delirium.  This  increased 


450  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

to  such  an  extent  as  to  require  restraint.  The  pulse  was  very 
quick,  and  scarcely  perceptible,  the  respiration  hurried,  the 
face  pale,  and  the  pupils  widely  dilated.  Convulsions  of  the 
limbs  followed,  which  ended  in  coma  and  death.  The  child 
who  survived  was  restless,  frightened,  and  troubled  with  illu- 
sions, and  the  pupils  strongly  dilated.  (Sur  rEmpoisonne- 
ment,  p.  755). 

There  is  great  discrepancy  among  authorities  about  the 
poisonous  properties  of  the  above  two  species  of  Solanum. 
This  may  possibly  be  ascribed  to  a  real  difference  in  the 
amount  and  in  the  strength  of  the  poisonous  principle,  de- 
pendent upon  the  season  and  mode  of  growth.  Some  have 
supposed  that  the  cases  of  poisoning  that  have  been  ascribed 
to  these  species  were,  in  reality,  to  be  accredited  to  the 
Deadly  Nightshade  (Belladonna),  which  had  been  mistaken 
for  the  others. 

The  berries  and  young  shoots  of  the  Solanum  tuberosum,  or 
common  potato,  have  proved  poisonous ;  and  the  berries 
have  caused  death,  as  in  the  case  of  a  girl  aged  fourteen 
years,  reported  by  Mr.  Morris,  in  the  "Lancet,"  June  28, 
1858,  p.  715.  There  were  great  restlessness  and  jactitation, 
and  an  anxious  expression  of  countenance ;  the  skin  was 
cold,  livid,  and  covered  with  a  clammy  perspiration ;  the 
pulse  quick  and  very  weak;  respiration  hurried;  the  jaws 
contracted;  the  speech  lost;  the  patient  constantly  spat  a 
viscid  froth  through  the  closed  teeth.  She  died  on  the 
second  day. 

Sir  R.  Christison  quotes  from  Dr.  Kabler,  of  Prague,  an 
instance  where  four  persons  in  a  family  were  seized  with 
alarming  symptoms,  such  as  vomiting,  coma,  and  convul- 
sions, after  eating  potatoes  that  had  commenced  to  sprout 
and  shrivel. 

Solania  (solanine)  is  the  active  alkaloid  principle  common 
to  all  three  of  the  above  vegetables.  When  pure,  it  occurs 
in  delicate,  acicular,  interlaced  crystals.  It  is  much  less 
powerful  in  its  action  on  man  and  animals  than  most  of  the 
other  alkaloids.  Schroff  states  that  it  has  no  influence  over 
the  iris. 

Chemical  properties. — It  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  very 


POISONING    BY   SOLANIA. — TBSTS.  451 

soluble  in  alcohol;  sparingly  soluble  in  absolute  ether;  very 
insoluble  in  chloroform.  From  aqueous  solutions  it  is  best 
extracted  by  hot  amylic  alcohol,  or,  better  still,  by  a  mixture 
of  alcohol  and  ether.  Either  chloroform'  or  ether  may  be 
employed  to  remove  foreign  matters  from  organic  mixtures 
containing  it. 

Cold  sulphuric  acid  immediately  produces  with  solania 
an  orange-yellow  solution,  which  becomes  brown  on  being 
heated.  Nitric  acid  at  first  causes  no  change  of  color,  but 
after  a  time  it  imparts  a  rose-red  tint,  which,  on  being  heated, 
changes  to  a  faint  yellow  (Worrnley).  The  most  character- 
istic test  is  cold,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  When  a  few 
drops  of  this  are  placed  in  contact  with  solania  or  its  salts 
in  the  dry  state,  the  deposit  instantly  assumes  an  orange- 
brown  color,  which  slowly  becomes  an  orange-yellow  so- 
lution ;  in  about  an  hour  this  acquires  a  purplish-brown  color 
and  throws  down  a  brownish  precipitate.  After  several 
hours,  the  solution  becomes  colorless,  and  the  precipitate 
acquires  a  yellowish  or  dirty-white  color  (Wormley,  loc.  cit., 
p.  663).  Many  reagents  which  precipitate  the  other  alka- 
loids have  no  effect  upon  solania, — such  as  chloride  of  gold 
and  platinum,  iodide  of  potassium,  ferrocyauide  and  ferri- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  etc. 

From  organic  mixtures  solania  is  best  recovered  by  adding 
a  drop  or  two  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  gently  warming  with 
half  its  bulk  of  alcohol.  The  cooled  mass  is  then  strained 
and  evaporated  on  a  water-bath,  and  again  filtered;  the  fil- 
trate is  next  evaporated  almost  to  dryness,  then  stirred  with 
a  little  pure  water,  and  the  solution  filtered.  This  solution, 
which  contains  the  sulphate  of  solania,  may  be  decomposed 
by  hydrate  of  lime,  and  the  solania  separated  from  the  sulphate 
of  lime  by  warm  alcohol,  and  this  evaporated  to  dryness. 
(Wackenroder;  quoted  by  Wormley.) 


452  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

CHAPTER    XXVI. 

DEPRESSANTS. 

UNDER  this  subdivision  are  conveniently  arranged  several 
very  active  Neurotic  poisons,  which  agree  in  the  property  of 
causing  great  depression  of  the  muscular  system,  although 
in  some  other  respects  they  may  differ  from  one  another. 

In  thus  grouping  together  different  poisons  it  is  not  in- 
tended to  imply  that  they  all  possess  one  identical  physio- 
logical mode  of  action.  The  substances  that  will  be  consid- 
ered under  this  subdivision  are  Hemlock  (Conia);  Tobacco 
(Nicotind) ;  -Lobelia ;  Aconite  (Aconitia);  and  Calabar  bean 
( Physosticfriiia}. 

SECTION   I. 

POISONING  BY  HEMLOCK    (CONIUM   MACULATTTM). — CONIA. 

The  spotted  hemlock  of  Great  Britain  and  America  is 
believed  to  be  the  same  plant  as  the  Cieuta  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  the  one  that  furnished  their  celebrated  state  poison. 
It  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Umbelliferae,  which  also  in- 
cludes several  other  very  poisonous  plants,  —  the  ^Ethusa 
cynapium,  or  Fool's  parsley,  the  Cieuta  virosa,  or  water  hem- 
lock, and  the  CEnanthe  crocata,  or  hemlock  water-dropwort. 

Every  part  of  the  Conium  maculatum  possesses  poisonous 
properties,  and  emits  a  peculiar,  disagreeable,  mousy  odor, 
which  becomes  more  perceptible  when  it  is  bruised  in  a 
mortar  along  with  a  solution  of  potassa.  This  odor  depends 
upon  its  volatile  active  principle.  The  leaves  and  fruit  are 
used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  succus  (which  is  procured 
from  the  fresh  leaves),  and  extract.  The  former  is  the  only 
reliable  preparation. 

Poisoning  from  hemlock  is  nearly  always  the  result  of  ac- 
cident, the  leaves  having  generally  been  eaten  in  soup  by 
mistake  for  parsley,  which  it  somewhat  resembles.  The 
accounts  of  its  action  upon  the  human  system  are  somewhat 
contradictory.  Some  authors  ascribe  to  it  positive  narcotic 


POISONING   BY   HEMLOCK. — CONIA."  453 

properties,  while  others,  who  have  experimented  with  it  upon 
themselves,  deny  that  it  possesses  any  soporific  power,  whilst 
they  experienced  dryness  of  the  throat,  headache,  a  numb- 
ing, pricking  sensation  gradually  extending  up  the  limbs, 
and  almost  amounting  to  temporary  paralysis.  The  eyes 
were  likewise  affected,  giving  the  sensation  of  objects  ob- 
structing the  vision.  Dr.  John  Harley  experimented  upon 
himself  with  five  and  a  half  drachms  of  the  succus.  The 
effects  were  general  muscular  lethargy,  loss  of  muscular 
power,  particularly  of  the  eyelids,  which  were  kept  open 
with  difficulty;  the  pupils  were  dilated.  The  mind  remained 
unaffected.  (Phar.  Jour.,  1867.) 

The  post-mortem  appearances  in  the  few  fatal  cases  noticed 
were  those  of  apncea,  with  redness  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach,  and  congestion  of  the  brain — signs  of  no 
characteristic  significance.  Sometimes  the  remnants  of  the 
seeds  or  leaves  may  be  identified  by  the  microscope,  and 
by  rubbing  them  in  a  mortar  with  liquor  potasses,  when  the 
peculiar  mousy  odor  will  be  developed. 

According  to  Dr.  Harley,  its  influence  appears  to  be  in  pro- 
portion, not  to  the  muscular  strength,  but  to  the  motor  activity 
of  the  individual ;  so  that  a  person  of  active,  lively  habits  is 
much  less  affected  by  it  than  one  of  indolent,  sluggish  dispo- 
position.  Thus,  "  an  active,  restless  child  will  often  take  with 
scarcely  any  appreciable  effect  a  dose  sufficient  to  paralyze  an 
adult  of  indolent  habits."  It  seems  to  have  no  effect  upon 
the  cerebrum,  since  even  when  given  in  fatal  doses,  "while 
the  eyes  will  be  completely  fixed  and  the  pupils  dilated,  while 
all  power  of  motion  is  lost,  and  the  individual  appears  to 
be  in  the  most  profound  coma,  the  perceptive  faculties  and 
reasoning  powers  may  be  as  acute  as  ever."  (The  Old 
Vegetable  Neurotics,  1868.)  Death  appears  to  be  the  result 
of  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  including  the  dia- 
phragm. It  is  generally  preceded  by  convulsions.  The  heart 
has  continued  to  beat  after  all  other  signs  of  life  had  ceased. 

Conia.  —  This  alkaloid,  known  also  under  the  name  of 
conine  and  conicine,  exists  most  abundantly  in  the  seeds  of  the 
plant.  It  is  one  of  the  most  actively  fatal  poisons  known, 
almost  equaling  prussic  acid  in  this  respect.  Sir  R.  Chris- 


454  •        MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

tison  states  that  a  single  drop  of  the  alkaloid  applied  to  the 
eye  of  a  rabbit  killed  it  in  nine  minutes  ;  and  three  drops 
applied  in  the  same  manner  killed  a  strong  cat  in  a  minute 
and  a  half.  Five  drops  put  into  the  throat  of  a  small  dog 
began  to  act  in  thirty  seconds,  and  proved  fatal  in  one  min- 
ute; and  two  grains  of  the  chloride  injected  into  the  femoral 
vein  of  a  young  dog  killed  it  before  there  was  time  to  note 
the  interval.  (On  Poisons,  p.  655.)  In  Prof.  Wormley's  ex- 
periments, a  single  drop  being  placed  upon  the  tongue  of  a 
large  cat,  the  animal  was  inclined  to  stand  still,  and  mani- 
fested an  unsteady  gait  when  disturbed;  in  two  minutes  and 
a  half  it  fell  upon  its  side,  voided  urine,  had  violent  convul- 
sions of  the  limbs,  with  trembling  of  the  body  ;  and  it  died  in 
three  minutes  from  the  time  of  the  administration  of  the 
poison.  In  another  animal,  the  pupils  became  dilated  and 
immovable,  the  legs  became  powerless,  and  death  occurred 
in  four  minutes,  being  preceded  by  violent  convulsions. 

Treatment. — Prompt  emesis  by  mustard  and  water;  active 
stimulation,  both  external  and  internal.  Pereira  suggested 
strychnia  as  a  physiological  antidote,  on  account  of  its  oppo- 
site effects  on  the  system. 

Chemical  properties. — Conia,  in  its  pure  state,  is  a  colorless, 
transparent,  volatile,  oily  liquid,  having  a  strong  alkaline 
reaction  ;  its  odor  is  peculiar,  repulsive,  and  suffocating,  re- 
sembling that  of  a  stale  tobacco-pipe.  When  diluted  with 
water  it  emits  an  odor  resembling  that  of  mice.  This  pecu- 
liar odor  is  perceptible  even  when  it  is  diluted  with  fifty 
thousand  times  its  weight  of  water  (Wormley).  It  gives  a 
greasy  stain  to  paper;  burns  with  a  bright,  smoky  flame  ;  its 
taste  is  disagreeable  and  persistent;  it  boils  at  about  350°  F., 
but  it  distills  over  with  the  vapor  of  water.  It  speedily 
changes  when  exposed  to  the  air,  becoming  yellowish,  then 
brownish,  and  is  finally  resolved  into  a  resin  and  ammonia. 
It  is  partially  soluble  in  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  chloroform  :  the  two  latter  will  separate  it  from  its 
aqueous  solutions. 

Tests. — If  a  drop  of  the  alkaloid  be  placed  in  a  watch-glass, 
and  covered  by  another  glass  holding  a  drop  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  both  glasses  immediately  become  filled  with  dense 


CONIA. — DETECTION    IN    ORGANIC    MIXTURES.  455 

white  fumes,  and  the  drop  of  conia  soon  becomes  a  mass  of 
beautiful,  delicate,  crystalline  needles,  which  are  permanent 
in  the  air.  Even  diluted  solutions  of  the  alkaloid  will  yield 
similar  white  fumes  when  exposed  to  the  acid  vapor,  which 
are  followed  by  the  formation  of  crystals  on  concentration. 
Sulphuric  acid  gives  with  it  a  pale-red  solution,  which  after 
a  few  days  deposits  crystalline  needles.  -Nitric  acid  causes 
with  it  dense  white  fumes;  it  deepens  its  color,  and  ulti- 
mately deposits  crystals.  Strong  hydrochloric  acid  imparts  to 
it  a  pale-red  tint,  which  gradually  becomes  much  deeper:  on 
evaporation,  needle-shaped  crystals  are  deposited.  Oxalic 
acid  forms  with  it  prismatic  crystals  of  the  oxalate  of  conia. 
Like  the  fixed  alkaloids,  it  yields  precipitates  with  tannic 
acid,  iodo-iodide  of  potassium,  terchloride  of  gold,  corrosive 
sublimate,  carbazotic  acid,  and  some  other  reagents ;  but  not 
writh  bichloride  of  platinum,  iodide  of  potassium,  ferrocyanide 
and  ferricj-anide  of  potassium,  or  bichromate  of  potassa.  Its 
liquid,  oily  condition,  together  with  its  peculiar  odor,  will 
serve  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  substances  except  nico- 
iina :  the  points  of  difference  between  these  two  alkaloids 
will  be  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Nicotina. 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Conia  may  be  separated  from 
organic  mixtures,  as  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  the  urine, 
or  the  blood,  by  the  process  of  M.  Stas,  somewhat  modified. 
"Wormley  recommends  to  exhaust  the  material  with  dilute 
acetic  acid,  as  in  the  process  for  nicotina  (see  post,  p.  4(52). 
Dr.  Harley  macerates  the  suspected  substance  fora  few  days 
in  water  acidulated  with  one-fiftieth  of  its  bulk  of  sulphuric 
acid;  this  should  be  evaporated  to  a  syrup,  the  residue 
mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  a  strong  solution  of  potassa, 
transferred  to  a  long  tube,  and  agitated  with  its  bulk  of  ether 
several  times  during  twenty-four  hours.  The  ether  is  then 
decanted,  and  the  residue  washed  several  times  with  fresh 
ether.  On  distillation  of  the  ethereal  solution,  impure  conia 
remains.  This  is  to  be  shaken  with  a  small  quantity  of  di- 
lute sulphuric  acid,  which  separates  the  alkaloid  from  the 
impurities.  From  this  solution  of  sulphate  of  conia  the  base 
is  separated  in  the  usual  way,  viz.,  by  evaporation,  mixing 
with  caustic  potassa,  and  shaking  with  ether;  and  then 


456  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

evaporating,  to  obtain  the  characteristic  oily  globules,  which 
should  respond  to  the  several  tests  above  mentioned. 

Dr.  Harley  gives  a  salutary  caution  in  regard  to  relying  too 
strongly  on  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  characteristic  odor  iu 
the  search  for  conia  in  organic  mixtures,  especially  the  urine. 
He  remarks :  "  In  examining  the  animal  fluids  or  tissues  for 
conia,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  addition  of  caustic 
potash  to  them  will  often  develop  an  odor  indistinguishable 
from  conia;  and  that  nothing  short  of  the  isolation  of  the 
principle  itself  should  satisfy  us"  (loc.  tit.,  p.  19).  He  also 
relates  a  case  iu  which  he  could  not  distinguish  an  ethereal 
extract,  obtained  from  a  patient's  urine  who  had  not  taken 
conia,  when  treated  with  potassa,  from  an  aqueous  so- 
lution of  conia,  used  for  comparison.  Dr.  Taylor,  speak- 
ing of  the  same  fallacy,  says  that  "an  incautious  operator 
may  readily  come  to  the  conclusion  that  he  has  found 
*  traces,'  and  ascribe  death  to  the  poison."  He  then  cites  an 
instructive  case  that  occurred  in  Germany,  where  a  man 
died  in  a  few  hours  after  going  to  bed,  and  it  was  alleged 
that  his  wife  had  poisoned  him.  Those  who  examined  the 
body  deposed  that  they  had  found  traces  of  conia  in  the 
stomach,  intestines,  and  kidneys;  and  the  wife  was  accused 
of  having  administered  hemlock.  Some  doubts  having 
arisen  in  the  minds  of  the  authorities,  the  matter  was  referred 
to  Mitscherlich  and  Casper,  who  found  that  the  chemical 
process  pursued  failed  to  detect  conia  in  the  body;  that 
there  was  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  deceased  had  taken 
hemlock  iu  any  form  ;  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  after  having 
eaten  and  drunk  freely,  he  had  vomited  after  going  to  bed, 
and  a  portion  of  the  food  had  entered  the  trachea  and  had 
suffocated  him.  (Med.  Jurisp.,  Amer.  ed.,  1873,  p.  242.) 

The  other  hemlocks — Cicuta  virosa,  or  water  hemlock, 
(Enanthe  crocata,  or  hemlock  water-dropwort,  and  JElhusa  cyna- 
pium,  or  Fool's  parsley,  or  lesser  hemlock — are  all  extremely 
poisonous,  producing  symptoms  of  an  acrid,  narcotic  charac- 
ter. The  CEuanthe  is  particularly  dangerous,  being,  iu  fact, 
one  of  the  most  poisonous  of  the  umbelliferous  plants.  Xo 
alkaloid  has  as  yet  been  isolated  from  any  of  those  just 
mentioned. 


POISONING   BY  TOBACCO. — EXTERNAL   APPLICATION.       457 
SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY   TOBACCO. — NICOTINA. 

The  dried  leaves  of  the  Nicotiana  tabacum,  a  plant  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Solanacece,  constitute  the  well-known  to- 
bacco so  universally  employed  throughout  the  world.  It  owes 
its  activity  and  poisonous  properties  to  a  volatile  liquid  alka- 
loid of  an  oily  consistence,  nicotina,  which  somewhat  resembles 
conia,  and  which  exists  in  different  proportions  in  different 
specimens  of  the  leaves,  varying  from  two  to  seven  or  eight 
per  cent. 

Symptoms. — A  large  dose  of  tobacco  (or  even  a  small  one 
in  those  unaccustomed  to  its  use)  produces  very  decided 
symptoms.  Very  soon  after  taking  it,  the  individual  expe- 
riences vertigo,  sense  of  confusion  of  the  head,  nausea, 
vomiting,  severe  retching,  heat  in  the  stomach,  great  anxiety, 
excessive  prostration,  cold,  moist  skin,  trembling  of  the  limbs, 
and  sometimes  severe  purging.  The  pulse  is  small,  weak, 
and  scarcely  perceptible;  there  is  difficulty  of  breathing,  and 
involuntary  urination.  In  some  cases  there  is  violent  pain 
in  the  abdomen ;  in  others,  there  is  rather  a  sense  of  sinking 
or  depression  in  the  region  of  the  heart,  passing  into  syncope, 
and  a  feeling  of  impending  dissolution.  The  pupils  do  not 
seem  to  be  always  similarly  affected.  Dr.  Taylor  states  that 
they  are  dilated ;  whilst  Dr.  Pereira  (Mat.  Med.,  ii.  p.  494) 
speaks  of  tobacco  as  differing  from  belladonna  and  stra- 
monium, in  causing  contraction  of  the  pupils,  both  when 
applied  directly  to  the  eye,  and  when  taken  internally;  and 
also  by  the  absence  of  delirium,  and  of  dryness  of  the  throat. 
Whartou  and  Stille  (Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  vol.  ii.  p.  609)  state 
that  the  pupils  are  but  slightly  affected,  and  that  they  pre- 
serve their  sensibility  to  the  light.  Death  is  often  preceded 
by  convulsions  and  paralysis. 

The  external  application  of  tobacco  to  abraded  surfaces, 
and  even  to  the  healthy  skin,  will  occasion  severe  and  some- 
times fatal  consequences.  Tardieu  mentions  several  in- 
stances where  decided  symptoms  were  produced  by  the 
application  of  the  dried  leaves  to  the  naked  body  (Sur  1'Em- 
poisonnement,  p.  780).  A  decoction  of  tobacco  applied  by  a 


458  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

man  for  the  cure  of  an  eruptive  disease,  caused  death  in  three 
hours.     (Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Sci.,  Jan.,  1865,  p.  268.) 

Its  fatal  effects  when  administered  by  the  rectum  are  well 
known  to  physicians.  Pereira  mentions  a  case  where  half  a 
drachm,  given  in  the  form  of  an  enema,  caused  death;  and 
Dr.  Tavignot  witnessed  a  case  in  which  fifteen  grains  thus 
administered  produced  a  fatal  result  in  a  robust  man,  aged 
fifty-five  years  (Rev.  Med.,  Nov.,  1840).  Even  tobacco-smoke, 
diffused  through  water  and  swallowed,  has  caused  the  death 
of  a  young  infant.  (Wharton  and  Stille,  loc.  cit,  p.  610.) 

The  smoking  of  tobacco  has  been  known  to  produce  violent 
and  even  fatal  effects.  Two  instances  of  the  latter  are  related 
by  Gmelin,  as  resulting  from  excessive  smoking,  in  one  case 
of  seventeen,  and  in  the  other  of  eighteen,  pipes  of  tobacco 
at  a  sitting. 

The  rapidity  of  the  action  of  tobacco  on  the  human  system 
varies  with  the  dose  and  the  mode  of  application.  In  one 
case,  an  unknown  quantity  of  snuff  swallowed  in  whisky 
caused  death  in  an  hour.  In  another  case,  quoted  by  Beck 
,(Med.  Jurisp.,  ii.  p.  878),  an  enema  of  tobacco  used  by  a 
female  for  the  expulsion  of  worms,  produced  violent  convul- 
sions, and  death  in  fifteen  minutes.  In  another  case,  quoted 
by  Christison,  a  tobacco  enema  caused  death  in  thirty-five 
minutes.  The  application  of  nicotina  to  the  tongue  of  an 
animal  has  caused  death  within  two  minutes. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — No  special  anatomical  lesion 
characterizes  this  poison.  A  diffused  redness  of  the  omen- 
turn  and  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  with  patches  of  ex- 
travasation in  the  mucous  membrane,  together  with  an  empty 
state  of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels  of  the  abdomen,  is  about 
all  that  has  been  observed.  If  the  leaf  or  powder  has  been 
swallowed,  these  may  be  recognized  by  their  physical  and 
botanical  characters  when  examined  microscopically.  In  a 
case  reported  by  Dr.  Taylor,  in  which  death  resulted  in  seven 
hours  from  swallowing  an  ounce  of  crude  tobacco,  the  brain 
and  upper  portion  of  the  spinal  marrow  were  congested ; 
the  heart  was  empty,  small,  and  contracted;  the  liver  and 
kidneys  much  congested;  the  intestines  contracted  through- 
out ;  the  mucous  membrane  reddened  and  partially  abraded. 


POISONING    BY   NICOTINA. — EFFECTS.  459 

The   bladder  was   empty  and   contracted ;   the   blood   was 
liquid  and  dark-colored.     No  peculiar  odor  was  perceived. 

In  a  case  of  suicidal  death  from  nicotina,  occurring  in  Lon- 
don in  1858,  and  examined  by  Dr.  Taylor,  the  post-mortem 
appearances  were  general  relaxation  of  the  muscular  system, 
staring  eyes,  bloated  and  livid  features,  the  vessels  of  the 
scalp  and  membranes  of  the  brain,  and  those  of  the  lungs, 
gorged  with  black  blood,  and  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  with 
the  exception  of  the  left  auricle,  empty.  There  was  intense 
congestion  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  and  of 
the  liver.  The  blood  was  black  and  liquid,  and  in  some 
parts  had  the  consistence  of  treacle.  No  peculiar  odor  was 
perceptible.  (On  Poisons,  p.  661.) 

NICOTINA  (Nicotine). — This  alkaloid,  when  pure,  is  a  color- 
less, oily  liquid,  which  assumes  a  light  yellowish  tint  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  and  deepens  and  thickens  by  keeping.  It 
produces  a  greasy  stain  on  paper,  like  conia,  which  dis- 
appears on  exposure.  It  is  usually  described  as  possessing 
an  acrid,  unpleasant  odor :  this  is  true  of  the  samples  gen- 
erally found  in  the  shops,  but  in  a  perfectly  pure  specimen 
the  odor  is  ethereal  and  pleasant.  Prof.  Guy  states  that  this 
odor  has  been  retained  for  several  years  in  two  specimens  in 
his  possession.  It  has  a  strong  alkaline  reaction,  and  a  density 
of  1.048. 

It  is  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  even  a  very  dilute  aque- 
ous solution  will  retain  the  peculiar  odor.  It  is  also  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  the  fixed  oils,  and  in  oil  of 
turpentine.  Either  chloroform  or  ether  may  be  employed  to 
extract  it  from  its  solutions  in  water.  Its  taste  is  very  pun- 
gent and  acrid,  even  when  much  diluted,  producing  a  pecu- 
liar sensation  in  the  throat  ard  air-passages.  It  slowly  distills 
at  about  295°  F.,  and  boils  at  about  470°.  It  may  be  distilled 
unchanged  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen  gas.  Heated  on 
platinum  or  on  paper,  it  burns  with  a  bright  flame,  emitting 
a  thick,  black  smoke. 

Nicotina  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly-fatal  poisons  known  : 
it  rivals  hydrocyanic  acid  in  this  respect.  A  single  drop 
destroyed  a  rabbit  in  three  and  a  half  minutes.  In  fifteen 


460  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

seconds  the  animal  lost  all  power  of  standing,  was  violently 
convulsed  in  the  legs  and  back,  the  latter  being  arched 
(opisthotonos).  (Taylor's  Med.  Jurisp.,  Am.  ed.,  1873,  p. 
227.)  In  Wormley's  experiments,  one  drop  put  into  the 
mouth  of  a  full-grown  cat  produced  immediate  prostration, 
continued  convulsive  movements  of  the  extremities,  and 
death  in  seventy-eight  seconds.  Another  cat  died  from  a  simi- 
lar dose,  and  with  similar  symptoms,  in  seventy-jive  seconds 
after  taking  the  poison. 

In  the  celebrated  case  of  the  Count  Bocarme,  who  was 
executed  in  Belgium,  in  1851,  for  poisoning  his  brother-in- 
law,  Gustave  Fougnies,  nicotina  was  the  agent  used.  An 
unknown  quantity  was  forcibly  put  into  the  throat  of  the 
victim,  the  countess  assisting  her  husband  as  an  accomplice 
in  the  murder.  Death  was  believed  to  have  taken  place 
within  five  minutes.  The  poison  was  detected  by  M.  Stas  in 
the  tongue,  throat,  stomach,  liver,  and  spleen  of  the  deceased, 
ahid  also  from  stains  on  the  floor  near  where  the  act  was  com- 
mitted. From  the  admirable  and  exhaustive  report  of  the 
examination  of  the  body  by  M.  Stas,  we  may  note  the  follow- 
ing particulars.  The  appearance  of  the  tongue  indicated  the 
action  of  some  highly  acrid  agent:  it  was  swollen,  black- 
ened, softened,  and  friable;  the  epithelium  was  detached  with 
facility.  This  was  also  the  condition  of  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  mouth  and  pharynx :  it  was  reddened  as  if  cauter- 
ized, and  was  removed  with  the  greatest  ease  by  the  handle 
of  the  scalpel.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  was 
intensely  injected,  exhibiting  large  patches,  which  were  livid 
and  black.  The  vessels  were  filled  with  a  black  coagulum, 
which  resembled  blood  that  had  been  treated  with  strong 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The  duodenum  was  also 
highly  injected.  There  were  no  ulcerations  or  perforations 
of  the  stomach  or  bowels.  The  lungs  were  gorged  with 
black  blood,  and  exhibited  the  usual  characters  of  asphyxia. 
The  heart  was  normal ;  its  cavities  contained  black  blood, 
not  coagulated.  No  mention  is  made  of  any  peculiar  odor 
being  noticed  in  the  body.  (For  a  fuller  account  of  this 
interesting  case,  see  Orfila's  Toxicologie,  ii.  p.  498;  also, 
Wharton  and  Stille's  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  612.) 


POISONING    BY   NICOTINA. — TESTS.  461 

Chemical  reactions.  —  If  a  drop  of  nicotina  be  put  into  a 
watch-glass,  and  this  covered  with  another  glass,  inverted, 
containing  a  drop  of  either  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid,  the 
glass  will  become  filled  with  white  fumes:  these  are  not  so 
dense  as  those  produced  by  conia  under  similar  circum- 
stances, nor  do  they  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  crystals. 
The  strong  acids,  when  applied  directly  to  it,  produce  no 
characteristic  effect. 

Nicotina  unites  freely  with  acids,  forming  salts,  which 
retain  the  peculiar  taste  of  the  alkaloid,  but  are  destitute  of 
odor.  They  are  mostly  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  not 
in  ether  or  chloroform.  If  a  salt  of  nicotina  be  distilled  with 
a  caustic  alkali,  the  free  alkaloid  will  be  found  in  the  distil- 
late, and  usually  associated  with  ammonia.  If  the  distillate 
thus  obtained  be  neutralized  by  oxalic  acid,  then  gently 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue  treated  with  alcohol, 
the  oxalate  of  nicotina  will  be  dissolved,  while  the  oxalate 
of  ammonia  will  remain  nndissolved,  and  may  be  separated 
by  filtration.  The  alcoholic  solution,  on  evaporation,  will 
yield  pure  oxalate  of  nicotina. 

(1)  Bichloride  of  platinum  produces  in  an  aqueous  solution 
of  nicotina  a  yellow,  turbid  precipitate,  which  ultimately  as- 
sumes a  crystalline  form,  well  marked  under  the  microscope, 
and  of  a  character  totally  distinct  from  that  of  the  double 
chloride  of  platinum  and  potassium,  or  ammonium. 

(2)  Corrosive  sublimate  throws  down  a  copious  white,  curdy 
precipitate,  which  soon  acquires  a  yellow  color,  and  deposits 
beautiful  groups  of  colorless  crystals,  which  are  permanent 
in  the  air.     In  very  dilute  solutions  of  nicptiua,  this  reagent 
at  first  causes  a  turbidness,  but  after  a  time,  especially  on 
stirring  with  a  glass  rod,  the  peculiar  crystals  appear,  which 
resemble  flowers,  winged  insects,  and   rosettes.     Although 
corrosive  sublimate  produces  white  precipitates  with  ammo- 
nia and  with  many  of  the  alkaloids,  yet  all  these  deposits, 
unlike  that  of  nicotiua,  remain  amorphous,  except  the  pre- 
cipitate from  strychnia;    and  in  this  case  the  crystals  are 
wholly  unlike  those  obtained  from  nicotina.     Prof.  Wormley 
considers  this  to  be  the  most  valuable  test  yet  discovered  for 
nicotiua  (Micro-Chem.  of  Poisons,  p.  433). 

30 


462  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

(3)  Carbazotic  add  yields  with  aqueous  solutions  of  nicotina 
a  yellow,  amorphous  precipitate,  which  ultimately  becomes 
a  mass  of  yellow,  crystalline  tufts,  to  be  identified  by  the 
microscope. 

(4)  lodo-iodide  of  potassium  yields  a  brownish-red,  or  yellow, 
amorphous  deposit,  which,  after  a  time,  may  entirely  disap- 
pear, to  be  at  once  brought  back  on  further  addition  of  the 
reagent.      A  similar  result  is  produced  with  most  of  the 
alkaloids:    hence  it  is  not  a  characteristic  test.      But  as  its 
reaction  is  extremely  delicate  for  nieotina,  serving  to  detect 
even  less  than  the  one-hundred-thousaudth  of  a  grain,  it  is 
obvious  that,  if  a  suspected  solution  of  nicotina  fails  to  yield 
a  precipitate  with  this  test,  it  will  be  useless  to  expect  any 
results  from  the  other  reagents. 

(5)  Terchloride  of  gold  produces  a  yellow,  amorphous  pre- 
cipitate, even  in  very  dilute  aqueous  solutions  of  nicotina,  in 
common  with  many  of  the  other  alkaloids.     The  same  is  true 
of  bromine  in  hydrobromic  acid. 

As  ammonia  gives  very  similar  reactions  with  some  of  the 
above  reagents,  it  is  important  to  be  able  to  distinguish  be- 
tween them.  Tannic  acid  gives  a  white,  amorphous  precipitate 
with  nicotina,  but  merely  imparts  a  red  color  to  ammonia. 
Gallic  acid  yields  no  precipitate  with  nicotina;  with  ammonia 
it  produces  a  pinkish-red  color,  rapidly  changing  to  an  olive- 
green.  Iodine-water  gives  a  brown  precipitate,  while  with 
ammonia  there  is  no  precipitate,  but  the  color  is  discharged. 

Separation  from  organic  mixtures,  or  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 
— The  process  already  described  in  the  former  part  of  this 
work  (p.  110)  as  the  process  of  Stas,  is  especially  adapted  for 
the  recovery  of  nicotina  from  organic  mixtures.  In  fact,  it 
was  the  very  process  employed  by  its  originator  in  the  Bo- 
carme  case,  above  alluded  to.  Other  good  authorities  have 
•somewhat  modified  the  original  process.  Wormley  exhausts 
the  suspected  material  with  water  instead  of  alcohol,  acidu- 
lated with  acetic  acid;  Taylor  employs  sulphuric  acid;  fStas 
originally  used  tartaric  acid.  After  proper  maceration,  filtra- 
tion, and  concentration,  the  residue  containing  the  nicotina 
salt  may  either  be  neutralized  by  caustic  potassa,  and  dis- 
tilled over;  or  (as  is  most  usual)  it  is  rendered  alkaline  by 


POISONING  BY  LOBELIA. — LOBELINA.          463 

potash  or  soda,  and  thoroughly  shaken  in  a  stout  tube,  with 
about  two  volumes  of  chloroform,  or  about  five  volumes  of 
ether,  and  the  mixture  allowed  to  repose  until  the  fluids  have 
completely  separated.  The  chloroform  (or  ether),  having 
been  carefully  separated,  is  allowed  to  evaporate  spontane- 
ously on  a  watch-glass,  when  any  nicotina  present  will  bo 
left  in  the  form  of  oily  streaks  or  drops,  having  the  peculiar 
odor  of  the  impure  alkaloid,  which  is  made  more  evident  by 
heating  gently.  This  should  be  corroborated  by  making  a 
solution  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  pure  water,  and  ap- 
plying the  above-mentioned  reagents,  using  first  the  cor- 
rosive sublimate  test.  A  drop  of  the  solution  may  also 
be  put  within  the  beak  of  a  small  bird,  or  in  the  mouth  of  a 
rabbit. 

Nicotina  may  also  be  readily  detected  in  the  tissues  and 
in  the  blood,  in  the  absorbed  state  :  the  process  to  be  em- 
ployed is  essentially  the  same  as  that  above  described.  M. 
Stas  was  probably  the  first  to  show  that  it  is  possible  to 
recover  an  absorbed  alkaloid  from  the  tissues.  About  the 
same  time,  Orfila  procured  the  same  poison  (nicotina)  from 
the  liver  and  spleen  of  dogs  killed  by  this  substance  (Toxi- 
cologie,  ii.  p.  493). 

For  a  full  detail  of  the  mode  of  separating  nicotina  from 
organic  mixtures,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Wormley's  "Mi- 
cro-Chemistry of  Poisons." 

POISONING  BY  LOBELIA. — LOBELINA. — The  Lobelia  mflata,  or 
Indian  tobacco,  is  a  native  of  North  America.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  both  in  this  country  and  in  Great  Britain  as  the 
standard  remedy  by  a  set  of  quacks  denominated  Tliomsonian, 
or  Botanical  doctors.  According  to  Dr.  Letheby,  thirteen 
cases  of  poisoning  by  this  substance  had  occurred  in  Eng- 
land within  three  or  four  years;  and  Dr.  Beck  states  that 
"  thousands  of  individuals  in  the  United  States  have  been 
murdered  by  the  combined  use  of  capsicum  and  lobelia 
administered  by  tbe  Thomsonian  quacks"  (Med.  Jurisp., 
vol.  ii.  p.  736).  The  leaves  and  seeds  are  the  parts  of  the 
plant  employed.  They  owe  their  activity  to  a  fixed  alkaloid 
named  lobelina. 


464  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

Effects  on  the  system. — In  small  doses,  lobelia  acts  as  an 
expectorant;  in  larger  doses,  as  a  powerful  emetic  and  de- 
pressant. In  poisonous  doses,  it  produces  distressing  nausea 
and  vomiting,  sometimes  purging,  copious  perspiration,  ex- 
treme relaxation,  anxiety,  prostration,  very  feeble  pulse,  con- 
tracted pupils,  insensibility,  occasionally  convulsions,  and 
death.  A  drachm  of  the  powdered  leaves  has  occasioned 
death. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  that  have  been  noticed  were 
inflammation  and  softening  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach,  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  The  vessels  of  the 
brain  are  sometimes  strongly  congested.  \Vhen  employed 
by  enema,  it  occasions  very  much  the  same  alarming  and 
fatal  depression  of  the  sj-stem  as  tobacco. 

Lobelina  (lobeline)  is  a  yellowish  liquid,  lighter  than  water, 
of  somewhat  aromatic  odor,  and  very  acrid,  persistent  taste. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  more  so  in  alcohol  and  ether:  the 
latter  readily  separates  it  from  its  aqueous  solutions.  It  has 
an  alkaline  reaction,  forming  soluble  salts  with  the  acids.  A 
boiling  heat  decomposes  it.  Tannic  acid  immediately  pre- 
cipitates it  from  its  solutions.  It  resembles  nicotina  in  many 
of  its  properties,  just  as  lobelia  resembles  tobacco.  By  ex- 
periments on  animals,  lobelina  seems  to  produce  the  narcotic, 
but  not  the  emetic,  effects  of  the  plant.  (See  paper  by  Prof. 
Procter,  in  American  Journal  of  Pharmacy,  ix.  p.  105,  and 
xiii.  p.  1.) 

In  a  case  of  death  from  the  use  of  lobelia,  the  diagnosis 
would  be  materially  aided  by  the  discovery  of  fragments  of 
the  leaves,  or  the  seeds,  in  the  alimentary  canal,  which  might 
be  identified  by  the  microscope.  No  case  has  been  recorded, 
so  far  as  we  are  aware,  of  the  administration  of  lobelina  with 
either  a  homicidal  or  a  suicidal  intent.  (For  the  report  of 
two  interesting  trials  for  fatal  poisoning  by  lobelia,  under 
the  "  botanical"  treatment,  see  Whartou  and  Stille's  Med. 
Jurisp.,  1873,  vol.  ii.  pp.  586  and  963.) 


POISONING    BY   ACONITE. — SYMPTOMS.  465 

SECTION    III. 

POISONING   BY   ACONITE. — AOONITIA. 

The  Aconiium  napdlus  (Monkshood,  or  Wolfsbane)  is  in- 
digenous in  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  It 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Eanunculacecz.  All  parts  of  the 
plant  are  poisonous,  but  the  root  is  the  most  so:  The  root 
and  leaves  are  officinal,  and  are  easily  identified  by  their 
appearance.  The  root  has  occasionally  been  fatally  mistaken 
for  horseradish  root;  but  their  characters  are  totally  distinct. 

The  root  of  the  aconite  is  conical,  rapidly  tapering  to  a 
point,  and  throwing  out  numerous  curling  fibres;  it  has  a 
dark-brownish  color;  and  when  a  fragment  of  it  is  chewed 
it  imparts  to  the  lips,  tongue,  and  fauces  a  peculiar  tingling, 
numbing  sensation,  which  is  quite  persistent.  The  horse- 
radish root,  or  stick,  is  cylindrical,  and  truncated,  not  con- 
ical; its  color  is  whitish;  and  when  chewed,  as  is  well  known, 
it  leaves  merely  a  sweetish,  pungent  impression,  totally  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  aconite  root. 

Aconite  root  has  been  administered  with  criminal  intention 
in  at  least  one  recorded  case,  where  the  powdered  root  was 
mixed  with  pepper,  and  sprinkled  over  the  greens  used  for 
dinner  by  the  deceased  (Dublin  Jour.,  July,  1841). 

Symptoms. — On  animals. — According  to  Dr.  Fleming,  aco- 
nite, when  introduced  into  the  system  of  one  of  the  lower 
animals,  produces,  successively,  weakness  of  the  limbs  and 
staggering;  accelerated  or  laborious  breathing;  paralysis; 
diminution,  or  total  loss,  of  sensibility  of  the  surface;  in- 
creasing difficulty  of  breathing;  and,  after  a  few  spasmodic 
twitches,  death  by  asphyxia.  In  a  few  instances  there  were 
decided  convulsions,  and  even  opisthotonos;  the  pupils 
were  generally  contracted  (this  is  contrary  to  the  experience 
of  Headland  in  the  case  of  animals,  and  also  differs  from 
the  recorded  cases  of  poisoning  in  man,  in  all  of  which  the 
pupils  were  more  or  less  dilated).  On  opening  the  body 
after  death,  the  heart  was  found  beating  with  considerable 
strength ;  there  was  great  congestion  of  the  venous  system, 
with  distension  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 


466  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

On  mail. — There  is  a  sense  of  burning,  tingling,  and  numb- 
ness of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach,  followed  by  nausea 
and  vomiting,  with  pain  and  tenderness  of  the  epigastrium. 
The  numbness  and  tingling  speedily  become  general,  with 
diminution  of  the  sensibility  of  the  surface,  vertigo,  dullness 
of  vision,  or  complete  blindness ;  tinnitus  aurium,  with  occa- 
sional deafness;  frothing  at  the  mouth  ;  sense  of  constriction 
of  the  throat  and  of  weight  at  the  stomach  ;  great  muscular 
weakness;  a  slow,  feeble  pulse;  difficulty  of  breathing; 
cold,  clammy  skin;  blanched  countenance;  perhaps  a  few 
convulsions,  and  death.  The  mind  throughout  seems  to  be 
unaffected,  the  patient  retaining  consciousness  to  the  last. 
The  brain  appears  entirely  unaffected ;  there  is  no  tendency 
to  sleep  or  to  coma.  In  a  few  exceptional  cases,  death  is  pre- 
ceded by  delirium  and  convulsions.  Death  is  apt  to  super- 
vene suddenly.  In  fifty-three  cases  of  aconite-poisoning  col- 
lected by  Dr.  Tucker,  of  New  York  (K  Y.  Jour,  of  Med., 
March,  1854),  cited  by  Wharton  and  Stille,  general  convul- 
sions occurred  only  in  seven,  and  delirium  and  stupor  only 
in  three.  In  seventeen  out  of  twenty  cases  the  pupils  were 
dilated. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — The  autopsy  reveals  nothing  char- 
acteristic. There  is  usually  considerable  engorgement  of  the 
vessels  of  the  brain,  and  likewise  of  the  lungs  and  liver. 
There  is  sometimes  redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  which  are  frequently  found  empty. 
The  blood  is  generally  fluid,  and  of  a  dark  color.  These  are 
merely  the  usual  attendants  on  death  from  asphyxia ;  and 
from  the  fact  that  in  animals  poisoned  by  aconite  the  heart 
has  been  found  beating  after  death,  it  would  seem  as  if  this 
poison  destroys  life  by  asphyxia.  In  some  cases,  death  ap- 
pears to  be  due  to  syncope. 

The  quantity  necessary  to  destroy  life  is  undetermined. 
This  probably  arises  from  the  variable  strength  of  the  prepa- 
rations of  aconite,  as  found  in  the  shops.  These  preparations 
are  the  tinctures  of  the  leaves  and  roots,  and  the  alcoholic 
extract.  The  latter  especially  is  apt  to  be  very  inert.  Sir  R. 
Christison  gave  six  grains  of  a  carefully-prepared  extract  to 
a  woman  suffering  with  rheumatism,  without  visible  effect 


POISONING    BY   ACONITIA. — TREATMENT.  467 

(On  Poisons,  p.  667) ;  whilst  Dr.  Fleming  speaks  of  two 
grains  producing  alarming  effects,  and  of  four  grains  prov- 
ing fatal.  One  drachm  of  the  tincture  has  caused  death  on 
several  occasions.  The  case  related  by  Dr.  Easton  (Glasgow 
Med.  Jour.,  July,  1853),  in  which  twenty-five  minims  of  the 
tincture  were  taken,  shows  probably  the  smallest  dose  that 
has  proved  fatal.  Whartou  and  Stille  mention  an  instance 
where  twentj'-tive  drops  proved  fatal  in  four  hours,  in  the 
case  of  a  gentleman  who  took  it  by  mistake  (Med.  Jurisp., 
ii.  p.  629).  An  excise  officer  in  England  died  in  a  few  hours 
after  merely  tasting  Fleming's  strong  tincture:  he  had  swal- 
lowed probably  not  over  a  teaspoonful.  Dr.  Pereira  speaks 
of  a  case  where  two  doses  of  six  drops  each,  taken  at  an  in- 
terval of  two  hours,  produced  most  alarming  symptoms  in  a 
3'oung  man  (Mat.  Med.,ii.  p.  1091);  and  Dr.  Worm  ley  alludes 
to  a  case  falling  under  his  own  observation,  in  which  five 
drops  of  Thayer's  fluid  extract  of  the  root  produced  most 
decided  symptoms  of  poisoning,  with  alarming  prostration, 
which  continued  for  about  two  hours  (loc.  tit.,  p.  611). 

On  the  other  hand,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  violent 
poisons,  recoveries  occur  after  swallowing  very  large  doses. 
In  such  cases,  most  of  the  poison  has  been  removed  through 
jprompt  and  active  emesis.  In  fatal  cases,  death  generally 
occurs  within  two  or  three  hours  ;  though  sometimes  life  is 
prolonged  for  twenty-four  hours. 

ACONITIA  (Aconitine). — This  alkaloid  is  the  active  poisonous 
principle  of  aconite.  It  abounds  most  in  the  root,  although 
its  proportion  here  is  only  from  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  one 
per  cent.  (Wormley).  In  \tspure  state,  it  is  probably  the  most 
violent  poison  known :  Pereira  states  that  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain' 
nearly  proved  fatal  to  an  elderly  lady  (loc.  cit.,  1093).  Much 
of  the  aconitia  sold  in  the  shops  is  almost,  if  not  entirely, 
inert.  Dr.  Pereira  swallowed  one  grain  of  a  French  prepa- 
ration without  experiencing  the  slightest  effect;  and  Wormley 
says  that  of  three  German  specimens  examined  by  him,  two 
were  entirely  inert,  and  the  third  nearly  so.  The  only  reli- 
able article,  heretofore,  has  been  that  prepared  by  Morson,  of 
London. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  known  chemical   antidote.     The 


468  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

poison  should  immediately  be  evacuated  from  the  stomach 
by  the  use  of  active  emetics  or  the  stomach-pump.  Stimu- 
lants should  be  freely  used  both  outwardly  and  inwardly. 
Finely-powdered  animal  charcoal,  mixed  with  water,  has 
been  recommended  b}*  Headland  and  others,  as  also  tannin, 
or  astringent  infusions.  Dr.  Wormley  cites  the  case  of  a 
child,  live  years  old,  to  whom  the  tincture  of  nux  vomica 
was  administered  as  an  antidote  to  the  tincture  of  aconite, 
on  physiological  principles,  after  unavailing  efforts  to  excite 
vomiting  had  been  employed.  The  effect  of  the  first  dose  of 
the  antidote  was  to  increase  the  force  of  the  heart's  action 
and  the  strength  of  the  respiration.  A  second  dose  of  tinc- 
ture of  nux  vomica  (three  drops)  was  administered  at  the  end 
of  twenty  minutes,  which  was  followed  by  vigorous  vomit- 
ing, and  a  speedy  recovery  (Amer.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Jan., 
1862,  p.  285).  Dr.  Fleming  recommends  friction  to  the 
spine  and  limbs  by  means  of  warm  cloths;  and  for  the  great 
dyspnoea  and  extreme  feebleness  of  the  heart's  action,  slight 
galvanic  shocks  to  be  passed  through  the  heart,  and  the  em- 
ployment of  artificial  respiration. 

It  would  appear  that  digitalis  has  the  power  of  acting  as  a 
physiological  antidote  to  aconite.  It  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
J.  Milner  Fothergill  (Digitalis,  Lond.,  1871)  that  where  digi- 
talis is  administered  to  frogs  under  the  influence  of  aconite, 
the  heart  is  visibly  relieved  from  the  depression  produced 
by  the  first  poison.  Even  when  all  the  cardiac  action  had 
apparently  ceased,  digitalis  had  power  to  recall  the  systolic 
movements,  until,  finally,  a  return  to  the  normal  state  was 
brought  about.  A  case  is  reported  in  the  "British  Medical 
Journal"  of  December  11,  1872,  where  recovery  took  place 
after  swallowing  an  ounce  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  the  root. 
The  patient  when  first  seen  was  apparently  dying.  Twenty 
minims  of  the  tincture  of  digitalis  were  injected  hypoder- 
mically,  and  after  twenty  minutes  the  man  had  revived  suf- 
ficiently to  swallow;  a  fluidrachm  of  the  tincture  was  given 
along  with  brandy  and  ammonia,  and  was  twice  repeated 
within  an  hour.  (Dr.  II.  C.  Wood's  Therapeutics.)  The 
above  facts  certainly  warrant  the  trial  of  digitalis  in  a  case 
of  aconite-poisoning. 


POISOXING    BY   ACONITIA. — PROPERTIES.  469 

Pure  aconitia  occurs  as  a  white,  transparent,  granular 
solid  (it  has  lately  been  procured  in  crystals).  Its  taste  is  at 
first  acrid,  soon  followed  by  a  feeling  of  tingling  and  numb- 
ness of  the  lips  and  tongue.  Its  solution  applied  to  the  skin 
occasions  a  feeling  of  heat  and  numbness.  So  active  is  this 
poison  that,  according  to  Dr.  Headland,  one  three-hundredth 
of  a  grain  will  kill  a  mouse  ;  one-twentieth  of  a  grain,  a  cat; 
and  one-tenth  of  a  grain,  a  man.  One-thousandth  of  a  grain 
causes  tingling  and  numbness  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue  ;  and 
one-hundredth  of  a  grain  dissolved  in  spirit  and  rubbed 
into  the  skin,  causes  loss  of  feeling,  lasting  for  some  time 
(Guy's  Foren.  Med.,  p.  566). 

Aconitia  is  unchanged  by  exposure  to  the  air.  Heated  on 
porcelain,  it  fuses  into  a  yellow  liquid,  which  gradually  be- 
comes darker,  and  finally  is  reduced  to  carbon.  It  has  strong 
basic  properties,  forming  salts  with  the  acids,  several  of  which 
are  crystalline.  It  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  water;  quite 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  chloroform ;  less  so  in  ether.  Its  salts 
are  very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  ether. 
None  of  the  strong  mineral  acids  causes  any  change  of 
color  in  it,  when  cold;  but  sulphuric  acid  when  warmed  im- 
parts to  it  a  brown  tint;  heat  causes  no  change  with  the  other 
acids.  There  is  not  a  single  chemical  test  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  aconitia.  The  alkalies,  carbazotic  acid,  chloride 
of  gold,  iodo-iodide  of  potassium,  and  bromine  in  hydro- 
bromic  acid,  all  yield  precipitates  with  a  solution  of  aconitia, 
but  nothing  of  a  peculiar  character.  Bichloride  of  plati- 
num, the  chromate  of  potassa,  and  ferrocyanide  and  ferri- 
cyanide  of  potash,  do  not  precipitate  it.  Its  presence  can 
be  established  (in  a  medico-legal  case)  only  by  the  physio- 
logical test, — i.e.  the  peculiar  tingling  sensation  imparted 
to  the  tongue  and  lips  on  the  application  of  a  minute  por- 
tion of  the  ultimate  extract  obtained  from  the  suspected 
material,  or  by  a  similar  application  to  the  skin,  resulting  in 
the  characteristic  tingling  and  feeling  of  numbness;  together 
with  its  introduction  into  some  small  animal,  hypoder- 
mically. 

If  the  poisoning  has  occurred  from  swallowing  the  leaves 
or  root  of  the  plant,  a  careful  microscopic  inspection  of  the 


470  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

matters  vomited  and  purged  should  be  made,  in  order  to 
identify  its  botanical  characters. 

In  1844,  a  trial  took  place  in  Albany  County,  New  York 
(State  v.  Hendrickson),  for  alleged  poisoning  by  aconite.  It 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  testimony  of  two  of  the  State's 
"experts,"  in  relation  to  the  methods  of  identifying  this 
poison;  and  it  furnishes  another  instance  of  the  folly  of  at- 
tempting to  diagnosticate  a  case  of  poisoning  by  such  a  sub- 
stance, by  a  partial  and  incomplete  mode  of  procedure.  For 
instance,  the  medical  man  who  made  the  post-mortem  ex- 
amination inferred,  "  from  the  emptiness  of  the  stomach  and 
small  intestine,  the  corrugation  of  their  mucous  coat,  and 
the  presence  of  a  reddish,  viscid  mucus  in  the  stomach,  that 
vomiting  had  taken  place,  and  that  this  vomiting  was  produced  by 
aconite'' !  The  individual  who  undertook  the  chemical  analy- 
sis testified  "  that  he  tested  a  small  portion  of  the  stomach  and 
a  small  portion  of  the  duodenum  for  prussic  acid,  and  for  most 
of  the  mineral  poisons;  then  for  morphine,  strychnia,  'stra- 
monine,'  and  other  poisons,  none  of  which  he  discovered." 
He  then  inferred  the  presence  of  aconitine  from  the  fact  that, 
after  digesting  a  small  portion  of  the  stomach  and  duodenum 
in  alcohol,  evaporating,  filtering,  and  purifying  finally  with 
animal  charcoal,  and  then  testing  the  filtered  solution  by 
boiling  in  sulphuric  acid,  it  was  "  turned  to  a  deep  port-v^i,c 
red  color"  !  (See  review  of  this  trial,  by  Prof.  C.  A.  Lee,  in 
Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  Oct.,  1844.) 

Detection  in  organic  mixtures. — Acouitia  may  be  recovered 
from  organic  mixtures  and  from  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
by  means  of  Stas'  process,  somewhat  modified,  as  described 
for  nicotina  (supra,  p.  462).  Chloroform  is  preferable  to 
ether,  as  the  ultimate  solvent  for  depositing  the  alkaloid. 
The  residue  thus  obtained  should  be  dissolved  in  a  few 
drops  of  distilled  water  very  slightly  acidulated  with  acetic 
acid,  and  a  drop  of  the  solution  should  first  be  applied  to 
the  tongue,  in  order  to  recognize  the  peculiar  tingling  im- 
pression caused  by  aconite.  Without  a  distinct  recognition 
of  this  physiological  proof  (a  large  quantity  of  the  solution 
being  used  for  this  purpose,  if  necessary,  and  the  experi- 
ment repeated),  it  will  be  very  unsafe  to  rely  upon  any  mere 


POISONING   BY   CALABAR    BEAN.  —  EFFECTS.  471 

chemical  reaction,  for  the  reason  already  mentioned.  If, 
however,  the  physiological  evidence  is  decided,  the  solution 
should  be  subjected  to  all  the  reactions  mentioned  above. 

Dr.  Wormley  (loc.  ciL,  p.  620)  states  that  by  means  of  the 
process  described,  he  was  able  to  establish  the  presence  of 
aconitia  in  the  stomach  of  a  dog,  which  had  been  killed  in 
fourteen  minutes  by  a  drachm  of  the  ordinary  tincture.  He 
also  succeeded  in  detecting  aconitia  in  the  blood  of  a  small 
dog,  poisoned  with  forty  minims  of  the  tincture  of  the  root. 
The  animal  died  in  sixty-four  minutes  after  swallowing  it. 
Twelve  fluidrachms  of  its  blood  were  treated  as  above; 
the  ultimate  chloroform  deposit  was  stirred  with  two  drops 
of  water  containing  a  trace  of  acetic  acid:  a  drop  of  this 
placed  upon  the  tongue  gave  positive  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  alkaloid.  The  remaining  drop,  diluted  with  two 
drops  of  pure  water,  was  examined  by  the  carbazotic  acid, 
the  chloride  of  gold,  and  the  bromine  test,  with  satisfactory 
results.  It  was  estimated  that  in  this  instance  not  more 
than  one  three-hundredth  of  a  grain  had  been  operated  upon 
by  the  various  tests. 

SECTION  IV. 

POISONING   BY   CALABAK   BEAN    (PHYSOSTIGMA  YENENOSUM). 

The  ordeal  bean  of  Calabar  is  a  large,  leguminous  seed,  from 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  of  a  brownish-black 
color.  It  is  imported  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  where 
it  is  used  by  the  natives  as  the  ordeal  test  for  witchcraft,— 
the  suspected  person  being  compelled  to  drink  a  decoction  of 
the  poisonous  beans.  It  owes  its  activity  and  poisonous  prop- 
erties to  .the  alkaloid  physostigmia,  also  named  eserina:  this 
resides  chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  in  the  cotyledons.  These, 
when  touched  with  nitric  acid,  assume  an  orange  tint;  and 
a  yellowish  brown  when  treated  with  perchloride  of  iron 


Effects  on  the  system.  —  "We  are  indebted  chiefly  to  the  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Fraser,  of  Edinburgh,  for  our  knowledge  of 
the  action  of  physostigmia  on  the  animal  economy.  (See 
Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb.,  vol.  xxiv.)  A  small,  fatal  dose  given 


472  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

to  one  of  the  lower  animals  first  occasions  a  slight  tremor, 
extending  from  the  hind  quarters  to  the  fore  limbs  and  head, 
and  then  paralysis  and  muscular  flaccidity,  setting  in  in  the 
same  order.  The  rectum  and  bladder  are  then  emptied. 
The  pupils  generally  contract;  the  breathing  becomes  slow, 
irregular,  and  stertorous,  and  a  frothy  mucus  escapes  from 
the  mouth.  There  appears  to  be  a  complete  abolition  of  all 
reflex  action,  although  sensibility  is  evinced  whenever  the 
animal  is  injured  in  any  way,  so  long  as  the  condition  of  the 
motor  system  allows  it.  This  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  the 
action  of  strychnia,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  so  remarkably 
increases  the  excito-motor  power.  The  muscular  tremors 
persist  throughout  the  paralysis;  and  they  sometimes  even 
assume  the  force  of  real  convulsions  (Fraser).  Conscious- 
ness is  preserved  to  the  last,  the  animal  dying  quickly,  as 
the  respirations  become  progressively  fainter.  The  pupils 
usually  dilate  immediately  after  death.  The  heart  is  found  to 
be  still  beating  for  some  time  after  death,  unless  the  animal 
has  perished  from  the  effects  of  a  very  large  dose  of  the 
poison ;  in  which  case  its  paralyzing  force  appears  to  have 
extended  to  this  organ  in  common  with  the  other  muscles  of 
the  body.  But  even  here  the  contractile  power  of  the  heart 
will  respond  to  the  galvanic  current. 

On  man  the  symptoms  are  similar  in  character  to  those 
described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  There  are  giddiness, 
great  muscular  weakness,  a  sense  of  general  torpor,  and  of 
faintiness;  feebleness  of  heart-action,  with,  generally,  con- 
traction of  the  pupils,  and  occasional  vomiting  and  purging. 
The  consciousness  is  preserved.  (See  Phar.  Jour.,  1855,  p. 
474,  for  a  full  description  of  the  effect  of  Calabar  bean,  as 
experienced  by  himself,  by  SirK.  Christison.) 

The  physiological  action  of  physostigrnia  is  precisely  the 
reverse  of  that  of  nux  vomica  and  strychnia:  it  appears  to 
be  a  direct  spinal  depressant,  while  the  latter  is  a  true  spinal 
excitant.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  used  beneficially  in  the 
treatment  of  tetanus,  and  likewise  in  the  tetanic  convulsions 
of  strychnia-poisoning. 

Its  most  characteristic  physiological  action  is  the  property 
of  contracting  the  pupil, — which  serves  at  once  to  distinguish 


POISONING  BY  CALABAR  BEAN. — CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES.    473 

it  from  belladonna  and  the  other  mydriatics  (see  ante,  p.  436). 
It  differs  from  conia  and  woorara  (which  it  resembles  in  some 
of  its  effects)  in  causing  contraction  of  the  pupils. 

Treatment. — Only  a  few  cases  of  poisoning  by  Calabar  bean, 
in  the  human  subject,  have  been  reported.  In  such  cases 
free  emesis  should  be  at  once  practiced,  and  the  cautious 
administration  of  atropw  be  employed  hypodermically,  com- 
mencing with  about  the  thirtieth  of  a  grain,  and  gradually 
increasing  it  until  dilatation  of  the  pupils  is  manifested. 
From  the  carefully-conducted  experiments  of  Dr.  Fraser  (loc. 
cit.)  and  others,  there  undoubtedly  exists  a  real  antagonism 
between  these  two  powerful  poisons,  so  that  they  may  justly 
be  regarded  as  being  mutually  antidotal. 

Chemical  properties. — Physostigmia  is  a  colorless  alkaloid, 
crystallizing  in  thin  rhomboidal  plates,  and  having  a  slightly 
bitter  taste.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  much  more 
so  in  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  ether.  It  forms  salts  with  the 
acids.  A  water  solution  of  it,  and  of  its  salts,  in  contact 
with  potassa  or  soda,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  acquires  a  red 
color  (in  consequence  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen),  which 
subsequently  changes  to  yellow,  green,  or  blue.  This  prop- 
erty is  said  to  detect  the  one-hundred-thousandth  part  of  the 
alkaloid  in  solution.  Bromine  in  bromide  of  potassium  (the 
most  delicate  test  for  atropia)  will  precipitate  a  very  dilute 
solution  of  physostigmia.  Dragendortf  found  it  to  act  in  a 
solution  of  one  ten-thousandth  part.  It  gives  a  red  color 
with  less  than  one-thousandth  of  a  grain.  The  chloriodide  of 
potassium  and  mercury  also  precipitates  it  in  a  very  dilute  so- 
lution. Chloride  of  gold  throws  it  down  as  a  blue  precipitate, 
from  which  the  gold  soon  becomes  reduced.  According  to 
Dr.  J.  B.  Edwards  (Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  1864),  it  reacts 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  bichromate  of  potassa  very  much 
like  strychnia, — yielding  a  violet  color,  which  passes  into  red. 

The  most  satisfactory  test  is  probably  the  physiological  one. 
This  consists  in  placing  a  drop  or  two  of  the  suspected 
poison  into  the  eye  of  a  rabbit,  or  other  small  animal :  con- 
traction of  the  pupil  will  take  place  in  the  course  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes  if  physostigmia  be  present.  Dragendorff 
has  succeeded  in  separating  it  from  the  tissues  by  a  process 


474  MANUAL   OP   TOXICOLOGY. 

similar  to  that  of  Stas,  employing  benzole  instead  of  ether 
avS  the  solvent.  It  is  said  to  be  rapidly  eliminated  from  the 
body  by  the  saliva  and  the  excretions  under  putrefaction. 
(Husemann's  Jahresbericht,  1872,  p.  570.) 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

ASTIIENICS. 

THIS  subdivision  of  Cerebro-Spinants  comprises  those 
poisons  which  destroy  life  by  asthenia,  or  failure  of  the  heart's 
action.  It  is  not  intended  to  assert  that  death  may  not  be 
produced  by  them,  in  some  cases,  in  another  way,  as  e.g.  by 
shock,  or  by  asphyxia.  But,  as  their  most  strongly-marked 
symptoms  are  such  as  indicate  a  failure  of  the  action  of  the 
heart,  this  name  answers  sufficiently  well  for  grouping  to- 
gether a  few  of  the  neurotic  poisons  that  especially  display 
this  property.  The  two  most  important  members  of  this 
group  are  Hydrocyanic  Acid  and  Digitalis.  Cocculus  Indi- 
cus  is  considered  under  the  same  head,  merely  for  the  sake 
of  convenience. 

SECTION   I. 

POISONING   BY    HYDROCYANIC   ACID. — PRUSSIC  ACID. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  and  rapidly- 
fatal  poisons  known.  According  to  the  statistics,  its  employ- 
ment for  criminal  purposes  is  on  the  increase  both  in  Europe 
and  in  this  country.  It  occurs  as  a  natural  product  in  various 
vegetables,  as  the  bitter  almond,  the  kernel  of  the  peach, 
apricot,  plum,  and  cherry,  the  pips  of  apples,  and  the  flowers 
of  the  peach  and  cherry-laurel.  From  the  latter,  a  very  poison- 
ous water  is  distilled  (cherry-laurel-water).  It  also  exists  in 
the  root  of  the  mountain  ash.  Properly  speaking,  hydrocyanic 
acid  does  not  pre-exist  in  these  vegetable  substances,  but  is 


POISONING   BY   HYDROCYANIC   ACID. — SYMPTOMS.  475 

the  product  of  their  decomposition  by  the  reaction  of  water, 
at  a  certain  temperature. 

Prussic  acid,  in  its  pure  state  (anhydrous),  is  a  compound  of 
cyanogen  and  hydrogen,  HCy.  It  is  a  colorless,  limpid  liquid, 
extremely  volatile,  and  having  the  odor  of  bitter  almonds.  It 
is  among  the  most  powerful  and  rapidly-fatal  poisons  known : 
a  single  drop  placed  upon  the  tongue  of  a  large  dog  caused 
death  in  a  few  seconds.  The  anhydrous  acid  is  very  rarely 
met  with  except  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist:  it  possesses 
no  medico-legal  interest.  It  is  the  dilute  or  medicinal  acid 
that  is  so  frequently  the  cause  of  death. 

The  dilute  or  medicinal  acid  is  merely  a  solution  of  the 
anhydrous  acid  in  water.  It  occurs  in  the  shops  under  two 
forms :  (1)  the  officinal  acid, — of  the  average  strength  of  two  per 
cent.;  and  (2)  Scheele's  acid, — of  the  average  strength  of  five 
per  cent.  It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  specimens 
of  both  varieties  of  the  dilute  acid  vary  considerably  in 
strength;  some  samples  of  the  commercial  article  being 
found  not  to  contain  a  trace  of  the  acid.  This  may  be  ac- 
counted for,  at  least  partially,  by  the  proneness  to  decom- 
position of  the  dilute  acid  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  light 
and  air.  The  dilute  acid  is  colorless,  and  has  the  bitter- 
almond  odor,  and  a  hot,  pungent  taste. 

Symptoms. — These  vary  with  the  size  of  the  dose.  If  taken 
in  a  large  quantity — half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  the  dilute 
acid — the  symptoms  usually  commence  in  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing, or  in  the  course  of  a  few  seconds.  It  is  seldom  that 
they  are  delayed  beyond  one  or  two  minutes.  Tardieu  de- 
scribes them  as  coming  on  with  lightning  rapidity.  There  is 
an  immediate  loss  of  muscular  power;  the  patient  staggers, 
and  falls  to  the  ground ;  the  respiration  becomes  hurried  and 
gasping,  the  pulse  imperceptible,  the  extremities  cold,  the 
eyes  glassy  and  prominent,  the  pupils  dilated  and  insensible 
to  light;  and  sometimes  convulsions  occur.  Towards  the 
end,  the  respiratory  movements  appear  to  be  suspended  for 
a  time,  and  then  to  be  performed  in  convulsive  tits,  like 
sobbing,  with  forcible  expiration.  Occasionally  the  bladder 
and  rectum  are  evacuated  involuntarily.  As  regards  the 
occurrence  of  a  peculiar  cry, — such  as  is  frequently  heard  in 


476  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

animals  poisoned  by  prussic  acid, — the  experience  of  all 
observers  is  against  its  existence  in  the  human  subject.  A 
strong  characteristic  odor  of  bitter  almonds  is  usually  exhaled 
from  the  patient.  The  face  is  either  livid  or  pallid  ;  the  jaws 
are  spasmodically  closed;  there  is  frothing  at  the  mouth; 
and  death  occurs  sometimes  in  a  violent  convulsion,  and  at 
other  times  is  preceded  by  coma,  with  stertorous  breathing. 
This  latter  symptom  (stertorous  breathing)  should  not  be 
overlooked,  as  it  might  possibly  lead  to  a  mistake  in  the 
diagnosis.  It  is  particularly  alluded  to  by  Christison,  Taylor, 
and  Tardieu. 

Fatal  period. — Death  generally  occurs  within  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes  after  swallowing  a  fatal  dose  of  the  poison.  Rarely 
is  it  protracted  beyond  half  an  hour.  One  case  is  recorded 
where  one  hour  supervened.  Although  the  fatal  result  is 
so  speedy,  the  insensibility  is  not  always  immediate.  This 
is  a  circumstance  of  some  medico-legal  interest,  as  where, 
iu  a  doubtful  case,  the  suspicion  of  suicide  might  seem  to  be 
negatived  by  the  fact  of  the  deceased  being  found  lying 
calmly  in  bed,  the  bedclothes  properly  adjusted,  and  the  vial 
that  contained  the  poison  corked,  and  put  away  in  a  bureau- 
drawer,  or  in  a  distant  part  of  the  room.  From  numerous 
cases  on  record,  there  is  no  doubt  that,  after  swallowing  even 
a  large  dose  of  prussic  acid,  a  sufficient  length  of  time  is 
allowed  to  perform  all  the  above,  and  other  voluntary  acts, 
before  the  fatal  insensibility  sets  in.  One  or  two  instances 
may  be  cited  to  sustain  this  assertion.  Dr.  Sewall  reports 
(Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  xxxvii.  p.  322)  the  case  of  a 
gentleman  who,  after  swallowing  seven  drachms  of  Scheele's 
acid,  equivalent  to  twenty-one  grains  of  the  anhydrous  acid, 
walked  from  the  table  in  the  middle  of  his  room  to  the  door, 
unlocked  it,  called  for  assistance,  then  walked  to  a  sofa,  and 
stretched  himself  upon  it;  a  little  while  afterwards  he  was 
found  iu  an  insensible  condition,  with  stertorous  breathing, 
and  he  soon  died.  Dr.  Taylor  mentions  another  remark- 
able case — that  of  a  gentleman,  aged  forty-four,  who  swal- 
lowed half  an  ounce  of  prussic  acid  (strength  not  stated). 
He  then  walked  ten  paces  to  a  flight  of  stairs,  descended 
the  stairs,  seventeen  iu  number,  and  went  to  a  druggist's 


POISONING   BY   HYDROCYANIC    ACID. — FATAL   DOSE.         477 

shop  forty-five  paces  distant,  where  he  had  previously  ob- 
tained the  poison,  entered  the  shop,  and  said,  in  his  usual 
tone  of  voice,  "I  want  some  more  of  that  prussic  acid." 
lie  then  became  insensible,  and  died  in  from  five  to  ten 
minutes  after  taking  the  poison,  without  convulsions. 

When  taken  in  a  large  though  non-fatal  dose,  the  symp- 
toms are  confusion  of  head,  giddiness,  a  sense  of  pressure 
on  the  brain,  great  loss  of  muscular  power,  inability  to  stand, 
nausea,  and  occasional  vomiting,  foaming  at  the  mouth,  and 
tetanic  convulsions.  This  latter  symptom  is,  however,  more 
apt  to  be  the  result  in  fatal  cases.  The  respiration  is  always 
difficult  and  oppressed ;  and  several  days  may  elapse  before 
the  health  is  completely  restored. 

When  applied  externally  to  the  skin,  this  poison  has  pro- 
duced serious  and  even  fatal  consequences.  M.  Tardieu  (Sur 
1'Empoisonnement,  p.  1034)  relates  the  case  of  a  photographer, 
who,  wishing  to  remove  some  stains  of  nitrate  of  silver  from 
his  hands,  rubbed  them  over  with  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  po- 
tassium, and  inadvertently  got  a  fragment  under  one  of  the 
nails.  He  shortly  experienced  a  sharp  pain,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  extreme  vertigo.  In  order  to  rid  himself  of  the 
offending  substance,  he  unfortunately  applied  vinegar  to  his 
hand,  which  had  the  effect  of  decomposing  the  cyanide  and 
liberating  free  prussic  acid.  The  vertigo  was  greatly  in- 
creased, accompanied  with  rigors,  pallor  of  the  face,  excessive 
loss  of  muscular  power,  and  inability  to  speak,  but  without  loss 
of  consciousness.  This  condition  lasted  for  nearly  ten  hours. 

The  same  author  mentions  the  case  of  a  medical  student, 
who  very  nearly  lost  his  life  from  incautiously  breathing  the 
vapor  of  prussic  acid  which  escaped  from  a  vessel  in  which 
he  was  preparing  it. 

Sir  R.  Christison  reports  the  case  of  a  man  in  whom  the 
liquid  acid  applied  to  a  wound  in  the  hand  caused  death  in 
an  hour  afterwards. 

Fatal  quantity. — From  numerous  cases  reported,  we  may 
conclude  that  nine-tenths  of  a  grain  of  anhydrous  acid, 
equivalent  to  about  fifty  minims  of  the  usual  medicinal  acid 
of  the  shops,  is  the  smallest  fatal  dose  for  an  adult.  Mr.  Hicks 
reports  a  case  of  this  kind  (Med.  Gaz.,  vol.  xxxv.  p.  896). 

31 


478  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

The  largest  dose  from  which  an  adult  recovered  was  prob- 
ably in  the  case  reported  by  Mr.  Buruam  (Lancet,  Jan.  14, 
1854),  in  which  one  drachm  of  Scheele's  acid,  equivalent  to 
2.4  grains  of  anhydrous  acid,  was  swallowed  by  mistake. 
The  individual  recovered,  most  probably  because  remedies 
were  immediately  applied  (inhalation  of  ammonia  and  the 
cold  affusion). 

Sir  R.  Christisou  has  reported  a  case  (Brit,  and  For.  Med.- 
Chir.  Rev.,  April,  1854)  in  which  a  gentleman  who  had 
taken  a  little  less  than  two  grains  of  the  anhydrous  acid  was 
with  great  difficulty  recovered.  Mr.  Bishop  relates  an  in- 
stance (Lancet,  Sept.,  1845,  p.  315)  of  a  man  who  entirely 
recovered  after  taking  forty  minims  of  a  solution  containing 
one  grain  and  a  third  of  anhydrous  acid.  In  both  these 
cases,  as  in  the  former  one,  the  recovery  was  undoubtedly 
owing  to  the  prompt  and  vigorous  measures  adopted. 

Treatment. — Such  is  the  rapidity  with  which  prussic  acid 
produces  its  fatal  effects,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  opportu- 
nity for  the  employment  of  remedies.  The  cold  ajf'usion,  con- 
sisting in  the  dashing  of  cold  water  over  the  face  and  chest 
of  the  patient,  has  been  found,  on  the  whole,  the  most  effi- 
cient remedy.  The  cautious  inhalation  of  ammonia  and 
chlorine  vapors  may  also  be  employed,  along  with  stimu- 
lants internally  and  externally  applied.  As  a  chemical  anti- 
dote, it  has  been  proposed  to  use  a  mixture  of  the  protosul- 
phate  and  sesquisulphate  of  iron,  followed  by  a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  potassa.  Such  a  mixture  would  produce  with 
prussic  acid,  if  present  in  the  stomach,  the  insoluble  and  inert 
Prussian  blue.  This  experiment  has  been  found  successful  in 
animals. 

Post-mortem  appearances. — The  body  is  said  to  maintain  its 
rigidity  longer  than  usual.  Its  putrefaction  is  neither  has- 
tened nor  retarded.  The  face  is  either  pallid  or  livid;  the 
eyes  are  often  glistening  and  staring,  with  the  pupils  dilated; 
the  lips  blue;  jaws  firmly  set,  with,  at  times,  a  bloody  froth 
about  the  mouth.  The  blood  throughout  the  body  is  fluid, 
and  of  a  dark-blue  color.  The  vessels  of  the  brain  are  con- 
gested. Tardieu  (loc.  cit.,  p.  1037)  speaks  of  sanguine  and 
aero-sung uiue  effusions  at  the  base  of  the  brain  as  an  occa- 


POISONING    BY   HYDROCYANIC    ACID. — TESTS.  479 

sional  occurrence,  and  one  that  might  lead  to  suspicion  of 
apoplexy,  which,  however,  would  be  cleared  up  by  the  ab- 
sence of  hemiplegia,  and  by  the  rapidity  of  the  death. 

The  lungs  and  liver  are  congested  ;  and  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach,  especially  about  the  cardiac  extremity, 
is  described  as  being  nearly  always  in  a  state  of  high  con- 
gestion. 

The  exhalation  of  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  acid  is  one 
of  the  most  important  post-mortem  characters.  This  odor 
is  sometimes  perceived  even  before  the  body  is  opened, 
especially  in  recent  cases,  but  is  particularly  noticeable  on 
opening  the  cavities  of  the  abdomen  and  thorax,  often  when 
the  brain  is  opened,  and  more  frequently  in  cutting  into  the 
stomach.  But,  as  the  poison  is  extremely  volatile,  it  may 
happen  that  the  odor  will  have  completely  disappeared  in  a 
few  hours,  or  days,  after  death,  especially  if  the  body  has 
been  much  exposed.  Again,  the  odor  may  be  disguised  by 
other  more  powerful  smells,  as  of  tobacco,  mint,  etc.,  or 
concealed  by  the  putrefactive  odor.  The  mere  absence  of 
the  characteristic  odor  is,  therefore,  by  no  means  a  proof 
of  the  non-existence  of  the  poison. 

In  the  case  of  the  seven  Parisian  epileptics,  who  died  in 
periods  varying  from  fifteen  to  forty-five  minutes,  no  odor 
of  the  poison  was  perceived  in  any  part  of  the  body  twenty- 
four  hours  after  death,  although  the  dose  was  a  large  one — 
over  five  grains  of  anhydrous  acid  (Braithwaite's  Retro- 
spect, xii.  p.  125).  On  the  other  hand,  in  Mr.  Hicks's  case, 
in  which  only  nine-tenths  of  a  grain  of  the  acid  were  taken, 
the  odor  of  the  poison  was  plainly  perceived  on  opening  the 
chest,  and  was  also  strongly  emitted  from  the  contents  of 
the  stomach,  ninety  hours  after  death. 

Chemical  analysis.  —  There  are  four  recognized  tests  for 
prussic  acid,  which  may  be  briefly  designated  as  the  silver, 
iron,  sulphur,  and  copper  tests.  The  first  three  are  charac- 
teristic ;  and  they  all  may  be  applied  to  the  acid  either  in  its 
form  of  liquid,  or  vapor. 

1.  The  silver  test. — A  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  or  of  a 
soluble  cyanide,  gives  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  a 
white,  crystalline  precipitate,  distinguishable  from  the  white 


480  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

chloride,  as  follows:  (1)  by  its  cr}T8talline  character  (prisms 
and  needles):  the  chloride  is  amorphous;  (*2)  its  sparing 
solubility  in  ammonia:  the  chloride  is  readily  soluble;  (3) 
the  permanence  of  its  color  when  exposed  to  light :  the 
chloride  becomes  dark-colored  ;  (4)  its  solubility  in  boiling, 
strong  nitric  acid:  the  chloride  is  insoluble;  (5)  when  per- 
fectly dried  and  heated  in  a  small  reduction-tube,  the  cya- 
nide is  decomposed,  giving  off  free  cyanogen  gas,  which 
burns  with  a  characteristic  roseate  flame.  One-hundredth 
of  a  grain  of  the  cyanide  may  thus  be  recognized. 

A  satisfactory  method  of  identifying  the  cyanide  of  silver 
is  the  one  proposed  by  MM.  Henry,  Jr.,  and  II.  Hubert,  and 
recommended  by  Ortila  and  Tardieu.  The  supposed  cya- 
nide, after  thorough  washing  and  drying,  is  introduced  into  a 
small  glass  tube  close.d  at  one  end,  from  five  to  seven  inches 
long,  and  containing  at  its  closed  extremity  a  rather  less 
quantity  of  pure  iodine.  On  heating  this  end  of  the  tube 
very  gently,  beautiful  snow-white  crystals  of  iodide  of  cyano- 
gen are  deposited  upon  the  cool  portions  of  the  tube.  These 
crystals  may  be  preserved  indefinitely  in  sealed  tubes;  and 
they  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  Prussian  blue,  by 
dissolving  them  in  a  solution  of  potash  and  adding  a  mixture 
of  the  protosalt  and  persalt  of  iron. 

The  silver  test  is  particularly  delicate  when  applied  to 
prussic  acid  in  the  state  of  vapor.  For  this  purpose,  the 
material  containing  the  poison  (such  as  the  stomach,  etc.,  cut 
into  pieces  and  diluted,  if  necessary,  with  distilled  water)  is 
put  into  a  wide-mouthed  flask,  and  a  watch-glass  containing 
a  drop  of  nitrate  of  silver  solution  on  its  concave  surface  is 
inverted  over  the  open  mouth  of  the  flask,  which  may  be 
gently  heated  by  immersion  in  warm  water.  The  vapor  of 
the  acid  rises,  and,  coming  in  contact  with  the  nitrate  of 
silver,  forms  an  opaque,  white  spot — the  cyanide  of  silver — 
which  can  easily  be  recognized  by  the  microscope  and  the 
other  tests  mentioned  above,  besides  being  corroborated  by 
the  sulphur  and  iron  tests,  as  will  be  shown  presently.  If, 
however,  the  material  is  in  an  advanced  stage  of  putrefaction, 
this  vapor  test  cannot  be  applied,  since  the  black  sulphide  of 
silver,  resulting  from  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  of  decom- 


POISONING   BY   HYDROCYANIC   ACID. — TESTS.  481 

position,  would  obscure  the  white  cyanide,  even  if  present. 
The  silver  test,  as  thus  employed,  is  the  most  delicate  of 
all  the  vapor  tests.  According  to  Wormley  (Micro-Chem. 
of  Poisons,  p.  179),  one  hundred-thousandth  of  a  grain  of 
prussic  acid  can  thus  be  recognized.  For  this  delicate  ma- 
nipulation, a  single  drop  of  water  containing  one  hundred- 
thousandth  of  a  grain  of  prussic  acid  is  put  into  a  watch-glass, 
over  which  is  placed  another  glass  holding  on  its  concave 
surface  a  small  drop  of  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  On 
warming  the  lower  glass  by  the  hand,  the  vapor  of  the 
hydrocyanic  acid  will  escape  and  act  upon  the  silver  solu- 
tion, producing  a  whitish  deposit,  more  evident  at  the  mar- 
gins of  the  drops.  The  crystals  can  be  identified  by  the 
microscope.  Prof.  Guy  (Forensic  Medicine,  p.  575)  mentions 
that  a  single  apple-pip,  bruised  and  moistened  with  water,  and 
placed  in  a  watch-glass,  yielded  twenty-two  distinct  reactions, 
— each  spot  exhibiting  by  the  microscope  crystals  of  cyanide 
of  silver. 

2.  The  iron  test. — This  consists  in  adding  to  the  suspected 
solution  a  little  liquor  potassse,  and  then  a  mixed  solution  of 
the  protosulphate  and  persulphate  of  iron  :  a  dirty-greenish- 
blue  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  which,  on  the  addition  of  a 
few  drops  of  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  becomes  the  clear  Prus- 
sian blue.  If  the  amount  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  be  very 
small,  the  color  of  the  solution,  after  adding  the  hydrochloric 
acid,  will  be  greenish  blue,  and  a  considerable  time  may 
elapse  before  any  really  blue  precipitate,  takes  place.  This  last 
result,  however,  should  always  occur,  if  prussic  acid  has  been 
present,  even  though  in  minute  quantity;  and  time  should 
be  allowed  for  the  precipitate  to  form,  since  this  is  perma- 
nent, and  (in  a  criminal  case)  can  be  exhibited  to  the  court 
and  jury,  as  a  characteristic  evidence  of  the  poison. 

In  the  uncertainty  arising  from  the  presence  of  only  a 
minute  quantity  of  the  poison,  it  is  recommended  to  throw 
the  disturbed  liquid,  after  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
upon  a  small  white  filter-paper:  the  yellowish  liquid  portion 
will  thus  be  removed,  and  the  blue  deposit  on  the  paper,  after 
being  washed  with  water  slightly  acidulated,  will  become  very 
distinct  upon  the  white  ground  of  the  paper.  The  latter, 


482  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

moreover,  when  dried,  can  be  preserved  and  exhibited  as 
evidence  at  the  trial. 

In  manipulating  with  minute  portions  of  prussic  acid  with 
the  iron  test,  caution  should  be  used  in  the  proper  adjustment 
of  the  reagents.  Too  much  potash  will  redissolve  the  pre- 
cipitated Prussian  blue,  and  an  excess  of  iron  solution  may 
likewise  retain  it  in  solution. 

The  iron  test  may  also  be  used  as  a  vapor  test.  Moisten 
the  watch-glass  with  a  drop  of  liquor  potassse,  and,  after  ex- 
posure to  the  suspected  vapors,  add  a  drop  or  two  of  the 
mixed  solution  of  protosulphate  and  persulphate  of  iron, 
and  develop  the  Prussian  blue  by  a  drop  of  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

3.  The  sulphur  test  (Liebig's  test). — If  sulphide  of  ammo- 
nium be  added  to  a  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid,  and  gently 
heated  to  dryness,  a  white  sulphocyanide  of  ammonium  is 
formed:  when  this  is  touched  with  a  drop  of  perchloride  or 
persulphate  of  iron,  a  beautiful  blood-red  sulphocyanide  of 
iron  results,  which  is  very  characteristic  and  conclusive  of 
the  presence  of  prussic  acid,  in  the  absence  of  meconic  acid 
and  the  soluble  acetates.  (The  meconate  and  the  acetate  of 
iron  both  possess  a  reddish  color,  but  they  can  easily  be 
identified.  See  ante,  p.  377.) 

The  sulphur  test  is  very  advantageously  employed  as  a 
vapor  test,  as  follows.  Moisten  a  watch-glass  with  a  drop  of 
sulphide  of  ammonium,  and  invert  it  over  the  vessel  contain- 
ing the  prussic  acid ;  on  gently  heating  the  vessel,  the  vapor 
of  the  acid  will  rise,  and  form  the  snlphocyanide  of  ammo- 
nium upon  the  watch-glass.  When  this  is  allowed  to  dry,  by 
evaporation,  and  a  drop  of  the  neutral  persalt  of  iron  is  ap- 
plied to  it,  the  blood-red  color  is  immediately  developed.  If 
the  evaporation  be  not  complete,  the  application  of  the  iron 
salt  may  produce  a  black  stain  (sulphide  of  iron),  which  may 
obscure  the  result. 

The  sulphur  test  may  also  be  applied  to  confirm  the  silver 
test.  For  this  purpose,  the  spot  of  cyanide  of  silver  on  the 
watch-glass  should  be  moistened  with  a  drop  of  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  and,  when  thoroughly  dried,  touched  with  a  drop 
of  the  persalt  of  iron  :  the  characteristic  blood-red  color  may 


POISONING   BY   HYDROCYANIC    ACID. — TESTS.  483 

be  seen,  in  spite  of  the  black'  sulphide  with  which  it  is  asso- 
ciated. 

4.  The  copper  test. — The  liquid  is  first  rendered  slightly 
alkaline  by  liquor  potassse,  and,  on  adding  a  dilute  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  a  greenish-white  precipitate  is  thrown 
down  :  on  the  addition  of  a  little  hydrochloric  acid,  the  pre- 
cipitate becomes  nearly  white. 

This  test  may  also  be  used  in  the  form  of  vapor,  the 
watch-glass  being  moistened  with  the  copper  solution,  made 
slightly  alkaline,  and,  after  exposure,  a  drop  of  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  being  added. 

As  regards  the  relative  delicacy  of  the  tests  described,  ex- 
periments show  that  for  the  liquid  hydrocyanic  acid  the  iron 
and  the  sulphur  tests  both  exceed  the  silver  test;  but  for  the 
acid  in  the  form  of  vapor,  the  silver  test  far  surpasses  all  the 
others. 

A  new  test,  and  one  of  extreme  delicacy,  which  is  attributed 
to  Schoenbein,  has  lately  been  brought  to  notice.  It  is  made 
as  follows.  Dissolve  forty-five  grains  of  guaiacum  in  three 
ounces  of  alcohol,  and  with  this  solution  saturate  a  sheet  of 
thin,  white  filter-paper,  which  is  then  to  be  gently  dried,  and 
cut  into  proper  slips.  Next  dissolve  fifteen  grains  of  sulphate 
of  copper  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  distilled  water.  When 
the  test  is  to  be  applied,  dip  a  slip  of  the  test-paper  into  the 
copper  solution,  and  hold  it  over  the  vessel  or  substance 
containing  the  hydrocyanic  acid;  very  soon  the  paper  assumes 
a  deep-blue  color.  The  author  of  the  test  states  that  it  will 
detect  one-millionth  of  a  grain  of  the  acid.  (Brit,  and  For. 
Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  Oct.,  1869.) 

This  is  certainly  a  test  of  extraordinary  delicacy,  as  we 
have  ourselves  verified  by  actual  experiment.  A  single 
drop  of  ordinary  medicinal  prussic  acid  (two  per  cent.),  when 
diluted  in  an  ounce  of  water,  will  readily  produce  the  blue 
color  upon  the  test-paper.  This  is  about  equivalent  to  one 
part  of  anhydrous  acid  diluted  with  nearly  twenty-nine  thou- 
sand parts  of  water.  Unfortunately,  this  test  is  not  charac- 
teristic of  prussic  acid,  since  the  same  blue  color  is  brought 
out  by  the  presence  of  ozone  in  different  forms.  Besides,  in 
experimenting  in  cases  where  the  hydrocyanic  acid  was  sup- 


484  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

\ 

posed  to  be  present  in  exceedingly  minute  quantity,  and  the 
vessel  believed  to  contain  it  was  warmed,  we  have  found  that 
the  mere  drying  of  the  test-paper  will  cause  it  to  assume  a 
blue  color  even  in  the  absence  of  the  poison. 

Process  by  distillation. — This  process  is  usually  resorted  to 
for  the  purpose  of  separating  prussic  acid  from  organic  mix- 
tures, as  the  stomach,  blood,  articles  of  food,  etc.  The  mix- 
ture should  first  be  carefully  examined  for  its  odor,  and  then 
tested  for  the  presence  of  free  prussic  acid.  If  not  found  to 
be  distinctly  alkaline,  it  should  be  distilled  without  the  addi- 
tion of  any  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  very  important  in  a  toxico- 
logical  investigation  to  remember  this  latter  point.  Sup- 
posing no  free  hydrocyanic  acid  to  be  present  in  the  contents 
of  a  stomach,  and  these  to  be  subjected  to  distillation  along 
with  sulphuric  acid,  it  might  readily  happen  that  the  sulpho- 
cyauide  of  potassium  that  exists  in  the  saliva  as  a  normal  con- 
stituent (and  which,  of  course,  would  get  into  the  stomach), 
as  well  as  any  ferrocyanide  and  ferricyauide  of  potassium 
which  might  accidentally  be  present,  would  undergo  decom- 
position in  the  act  of  distillation,  and  traces  of  the  developed 
prussic  acid  would  be  discovered  by  the  usual  tests.  We 
therefore  consider  it  an  error,  in  a  medico-legal  case,  to  em- 
ploy any  acid  along  with  the  suspected  materials  in  the  pro- 
cess of  distillation,  since  by  so  doing  the  chemist  inevitably 
puts  it  out  of  his  power  to  determine  whether  the  traces 
of  prussic  acid  which  he  discovers  are  due  to  the  poison 
originally  existing  in  the  free  state,  or  merely  to  the  prussic 
acid  which  he  has  actually  manufactured  by  the  process  used. 
Of  course,  if  cyanide  of  potassium  had  been  the  poison  em- 
ployed, the  contents  of  the  stomach  would  have  an  alkaline 
reaction ;  in  which  case  the  addition  of  sulphuric  or  some 
other  acid  would  be  perfectly  proper. 

In  employing  the  distilling  process,  the  materials  should, 
if  solid,  be  cut  into  small  fragments,  and  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  distilled  water  added ;  they  should  then  be  intro- 
duced into  a  proper-sized  glass  retort,  connected  with  a 
good  condensing  arrangement.  The  retort  should  not  be 
heated  beyond  200°  F.  About  one-fourth  of  the  contents 
should  be  allowed  to  distill  once :  these  should  be  subjected 


POISONING    BY   HYDROCYANIC   ACID. — DISTILLATION.       485 

to  the  different  tests  already  mentioned.  They  frequently 
reveal  the  characteristic  odor. 

In  the  celebrated  case  of  Dr.  Paul  Schoeppe,  at  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  in  1868  and  1872,  where  the  allegation  first  was,  that 
the  deceased  had  been  poisoned  with  prussic  acid,  and  subse- 
quently that  it  was  by  a  mixture  of  prussic  acid  and  morphia, 
the  defense  very  properly  took  the  ground  that  the  "  faint 
traces"  of  prussic  acid  alleged  to  have  been  discovered  by 
the  analyst  were  really  produced  or  manufactured  by  the 
process  which  was  employed  for  its  detection,  viz.,  distillation 
with  sulphuric  acid ;  and  for  the  reason  mentioned  above — 
the  decomposition  of  the  sulphocyanide  of  the  saliva  by 
the  acid.  This  view  seemed,  moreover,  to  receive  con- 
firmation from  the  fact  that  the  traces  described  by  the  analyst 
must  have  been  exceedingly  faint,  inasmuch  as  the  iron  test 
merely  revealed  what  was  described  to  be  a  bluish  discolora- 
tion, which  did  not  become  a  definite  precipitate :  the  actual  pre- 
cipitate is  always  essential  for  proof.  The  sulphur  test  (the 
only  other  one  employed)  jdelded  a  rather  equivocal  reddish 
coloration.  Moreover,  there  was  an  entire  absence  of  any 
characteristic  symptom  of  the  alleged  poison,  before  death 
(see  ante,  p.  93). 

One  of  the  latest  American  authorities,  speaking  of  this 
acid,  says:  "It  may  certainly  become  a  question  of  serious 
import  whether  the  traces  of  it  found  afterwards  may  not  be 
due  to  some  other  cause  than  its  ingestion  into  the  stomach. 
Thus,  if  the  contents  of  the  stomach  be  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion with  an  acid,  it  may  possibly  happen  that  the  sulpho- 
cyanide of  potassium,  which  sometimes  exists  in  minute 
traces  in  the  saliva,  may  be  decomposed,  and  evidences  of 
prussic  acid  be  thus  obtained."  (Wharton  and  Stille's 
Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  516.) 

The  source  of  the  poison  found  in  the  distillate,  when  an 
acid  has  been  employed,  may  be  determined  by  treating 
a  portion  of  the  reserved  liquid  with  a  few  drops  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  stirring  the  mixture  for  a  short  time,  and  then 
adding  a  solution  of  the  perchloride  of  iron.  If  the  liquid 
treated  contains  either  a  ferrocyanide  or  a  sulphocyanide, 
the  former  will  be  indicated  by  the  formation  of  Prussian 


486  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

blue,  and  the  latter  by  the  production  of  the  red  sulpho- 
cyanide  of  iron  ;  whereas  a  simple  cyanide  (cyanide  of  potas- 
sium) will  not  give  any  reaction  under  the  circumstances. 
As  commercial  cyanide  of  potassium  may  be  contaminated 
with  the  ferrocyanide,  traces  of  the  latter  may  be  present  in 
poisoning  by  the  former. 

As  regards  the  question  whether  prussic  acid  may  be 
spontaneously  generated  by  the  distillation  of  putrescent  ani- 
mal matters,  Orfila  appears  to  have  inclined  to  this  belief, 
and  has  recorded  some  experiments  that  seem  to  countenance 
it  (Toxicologie,  ii.  p.  465).  Later  authorities,  however, 
discredit  it.  Still,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  in  an  im- 
portant medico-legal  case,  involving  the  life  of  the  accused, 
something  more  should  be  insisted  upon  as  proof  than  the 
finding  of  mere  traces  of  prussic  acid,  since  these  might  pos- 
sibly be  the  result  of  some  spontaneous  animal  decompo- 
sition, brought  about  under  conditions  not  yet  perfectly 
understood.  Especially  should  this  be  insisted  upon  where 
the  symptoms  preceding  death  did  not  agree  with  those 
characteristic  of  the  alleged  poison. 

Period  after  death  when  the  poison  may  be  found. — On  account 
of  its  great  volatility  and  its  ready  decomposition,  all  traces 
of  prussic  acid  may  disappear  very  shortly  after  death.  Prof. 
Casper  mentions  a  case  in  which  it  could  not  be  discovered 
twenty-six  hours  after  death.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Taylor 
alludes  to  two  cases  in  which  the  poison  was  identified  re- 
spectively in  twelve  and  seventeen  days  after  death. 

Mr.  West  was  able  to  detect  it  on  distillation  by  the  odor 
and  by  the  silver  and  iron  tests  twenty-three  days  after  death, 
although  no  pains  had  been  taken  to  insure  its  preservation 
(Prov.  Med.  Jour.,  July  23, 1845);  and  M.  Brame  was  equally 
successful,  after  the  lapse  of  a  similar  period,  in  the  case  of 
a  young  man  of  Tours,  who  had  poisoned  himself  with  a 
very  large  dose  of  prussic  acid  (Comptes-Rendus,  No.  20, 
Nov.  13,  1854).  In  a  German  case  it  was  also  detected  three 
weeks  after  death  (Brit,  and  For.  Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  April, 
1860). 

The  mere  fact  of  putrefaction  is  no  obstacle  to  its  detection; 
but  when  the  viscera  containing  the  poison  have  undergone 


POISONING   BY   OIL   OF   BITTER   ALMONDS.  487 

putrefaction,  no  traces  of  it  may  be  discoverable  either  by 
its  vapor  or  by  distillation.  In  this  case  it  may  have  been 
converted  into  sulphocyanide  of  ammonium  by  the  sulphide 
of  ammonium  resulting  from  the  putrefaction.  The  sulpho- 
cyanide should  be  dissolved  out  of  the  dried  viscera  or  liquids 
by  alcohol,  and  the  solution  evaporated  to  dry  ness;  the  residue 
is  then  dissolved  in  water,  and  tested  by  a  persalt  of  iron. 

Quantitative  analysis. — The  free  hydrocyanic  acid  is  precipi- 
tated by  nitrate  of  silver,  as  a  cyanide ;  this,  when  washed 
and  dried,  is  weighed:  every  100  parts  correspond  to  20.15 
parts  of  anhydrous  acid. 

CYANIDE  OF  POTASSIUM. — This  substance  is  now  extensively 
used  in  the  arts,  especially  in  the  processes  of  photography 
and  electrotyping.  It  is  exceedingly  poisonous,  causing  death 
in  doses  under  five  grains. 

It  is  a  white,  crystalline,  deliquescent  salt,  very  soluble  in 
water;  its  solution,  when  pure,  is  colorless;  giving  off  the 
strong  odor  of  prussic  acid;  it  has  an  alkaline  reaction.  It 
is  not  very  soluble  in  alcohol.  The  symptoms,  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances, and  treatment  are  similar  to  those  of  prussic  acid. 

Chemical  analysis. — 1.  It  is  decomposed  by  all  acids,  setting 
prussic  acid  free,  which  may  be  identified  by  the  usual  tests. 
2.  It  gives,  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  the  white 
cyanide.  3.  The  potash  is  precipitated  by  tartaric  acid  and 
bichloride  of  platinum.  4.  The  iron  and  copper  tests,  as 
applied  to  prussic  acid,  act  similarly  here,  only  the  addition 
of  liquor  potassje  is  not  needed. 

In  organic  mixtures,  the  prussic  acid  may  be  obtained  by 
neutralizing  the  alkali  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  distilling  it 
at  a  low  temperature. 

OIL  OF  BITTER  ALMONDS. — This  is  procured  by  the  distil- 
lation of  the  pulp  or  emulsion  of  bitter  almonds.  It  con- 
tains a  variable  proportion — amounting  to  from  eight  to 
fourteen  per  cent. — of  anhydrous  prussic  acid,  together  with 
hydride  of  benzule,  benzoin,  and  benzoic  acid. 

Its  poisonous  properties  are  due  to  the  prussic  acid.  When 
entirely  freed  from  the  latter,  the  oil  is  stated  to  be  harmless. 

Properties. — Ordinary  oil  of  bitter  almonds   has  a  light- 


488  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

yellow  color,  a  peculiar,  pungent  odor,  due  to  the  prussic  acid, 
and  a  bitter,  pungent,  and  aromatic  taste.  It  is  heavier  than 
water,  which  only  partially  dissolves  it;  it  is  soluble  in  alco- 
hol and  ether;  it  has  a  slight  acid  reaction.  A  liquid  sold 
as  almond  flavor,  or  essence  of  peach-kernels,  consists  of  this  oil 
dissolved  in  seven  or  eight  parts  of  spirit :  it  is  too  dangerous 
a  substance  for  domestic  use. 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds  is  a  violent  poison,  producing  the 
same  eft'ects  as  prussic  acid.  The  symptoms,  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances, and  mode  of  treatment  are  the  same  as  those  already 
described  under  the  head  of  prussic  acid. 

The  fatal  dose  is  about  twenty  drops. 

Cherry-laurel-watcr,  obtained  by  distilling  the  leaves  of  the 
cherry-laurel  (Primus  lauro-cerasus),  contains  also  a  portion 
of  an  essential  oil  similar  to  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It 
owes  its  poisonous  properties  to  the  hydrocyanic  acid  it  con- 
tains. Cherry-laurel-water  has  more  than  once  proved  fatal ; 
but  it  has  been  specially  identified  with  the  celebrated  case  of 
Sir  Theodosius  Boughton,  who  was  poisoned  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Captain  Douallan,  in  1781. 

The  kernels  of  the  apricot,  peach,  and  cherry  have  all  proved 
poisonous — in  some  instances  fatally  so — when  swallowed 
by  children.  Dr.  Keating  has  reported  (Trans,  of  Phi  la. 
Coll.  of  Physicians,  vol.  iii.  No.  3)  an  interesting  case,  in 
which  he  succeeded,  by  the  affusion  of  cold  water,  in  restoring 
a  child  three  years  of  age,  who  had  eaten  a  quantity  of  peach- 
kernels.  The  child  was  seized  suddenly,  and,  when  seen,  was 
insensible,  with  slow,  deep,  sobbing  respiration,  no  convul- 
sions of  the  limbs,  but  slight  twitching  of  the  mouth,  cold 
extremities,  finger-nails  livid,  hands  tightly  clinched,  eyes 
prominent,  and  pupils  dilated.  A  strong  odor  of  prussic 
acid  was  perceived  about  the  mouth.  An  emetic  brought  up 
a  quantity  of  peach-kernels,  emitting  the  characteristic  odor. 

The  case  is  supposable  in  which  death  is  alleged  to  have 
resulted  from  prussic  acid,  and  where  the  chemical  analysis  has 
revealed  traces  of  this  poison,  that  these  should  be  ascribed, 
by  the  defense,  to  kernels  of  the  peach  or  apricot,  or  even  to 
apple-pips,  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  deceased.  An  instance 
of  the  latter  is  mentioned  by  Taylor  (Oil  Poisons,  p.  602).  Any 


POISONING    BY   NITKO-BENZOLE. — CHEMICAL    ANALYSIS.      489 

doubts  in  the  matter  would  be  cleared  up  by  finding  a  larger 
quantity  of  hydrocyanic  acid  than  could  be  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for  from  the  above  substances.  Moreover,  death 
could  hardly  result  from  the  ingestion  of  these,  without 
their  subsequent  discovery  in  such  large  quantities  as  would 
entirely  preclude  the  idea  of  the  administration  of  prussic 
acid  in  substance. 

NlTRO-BENZOLE,  OR  ESSENCE   OF   MlRBANE. — This  Substance 

is  a  product  of  the  action  of  nitrous  acid  on  benzole.  It  is 
a  pale,  lemon-colored  liquid,  with  a  strong  odor  resembling 
that  of  bitter  almonds.  It  has  of  late  years  been  introduced 
into  use  in  perfumery  and  confectionery  as  a  cheap  substi- 
tute for  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  a  powerful  narcotic 
poison,  resembling  in  its  general  effects  those  of  the  oil  of 
bitter  almonds  or  prussic  acid,  although  much  slower  in  its 
operation  than  the  two  latter.  After  the  first  characteristic 
symptoms  have  continued  for  about  four  hours,  the  patient 
falls  suddenly  into  a  coma  as  in  an  apoplexy,  which  usually 
proves  fatal  in  about  five  hours. 

In  a  fatal  case  described  by  Dr.  A.  Taylor  (Med.  Jurisp., 
p.  310),  the  appearances  after  death  were — flushed  face,  livid 
lips ;  the  superficial  vessels  of  the  body,  especially  about  the 
throat  and  arms,  were  gorged  with  black  and  fluid  blood; 
the  lungs  were  somewhat  congested.  The  cavities  of  the 
heart  were  full  of  blood ;  the  liver  was  of  a  purple  color,  and 
the  gall-bladder  distended  with  bile ;  the  brain  and  its  mem- 
branes were  congested,  with  much  bloody  serosity  in  the 
ventricles.  Nitro-benzole,  as  well  as  aniline,  into  which  it 
appears  to  be  partially  converted  in  the  body,  was  detected 
in  the  brain  and  in  the  stomach. 

This  poison  operates  more  powerfully  in  the  form  of 
vapor,  than  as  a  liquid :  a  number  of  fatal  cases  resulting 
from  the  inhalation  of  the  fumes  have  been  recorded.  The 
rapidly-fatal  cases  might  possibly  be  mistaken  for  apoplexy ; 
but  the  poison  would  be  identified  by  its  powerful  odor. 

Chemical  analysis. — It  is  distinguished  from  all  other  liquids, 
except  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  by  its  odor;  and  from  this  oil 
by  the  following  test.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  each  upon  a 
plate,  and  add  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  :  the  oil  of 


490  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

bitter  almonds  acquires  a  rich  crimson  color  with  a  yellow 
border,  while  the  nitro-benzole  produces  no  color.  It  gives 
none  of  the  reactions  of  prussic  acid  with  the  ordinary  tests 
of  this  acid. 

When  associated  with  organic  liquids,  it  may  be  separated 
by  first  adding  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  distilling. 

SECTION  II. 

POISONING   BY   DIGITALIS   (FOXGLOVE). — DIGITALINK. 

The  purple  foxglove  (Digitalis  purpurea)  is  indigenous 
to  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  our 
gardens.  All  parts  contain  the  poisonous  principle  digitaline, 
which,  however,  abounds  most  in  the  leaves  of  the  second 
year's  growth.  According  to  most  authorities,  the  fresh 
leaves  contain  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  active  princi- 
ple; while  Ch.  Blaquart  asserts  that  ten  to  twelve  per  cent, 
of  crystallizable  digitaline  can  be  extracted  from  the  crude 
drug  (L5 Union  Pharmaceutique,  Nov.,  1872). 

Symptoms  and  effects. — Cases  of  poisoning  by  digitalis  are 
comparatively  rare.  Most  of  our  knowledge  of  its  toxic 
effects  is  derived  from  experiments  on  animals.  Its  chief 
and  important  impression  is  made  directly  upon  the  circula- 
tion :  under  its  influence,  the  pulsations  of  the  heart  are 
diminished  in- frequency,  but  increased  in  power.  Hence  it 
is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  direct  heart-stimulant.  The 
poisonous  symptoms,  in  man,  are  vomiting,  purging,  and 
severe  abdominal  pains  ;  a  sense  of  heat  in  the  head,  vertigo, 
and  disordered  vision;  dilated  pupils;  the  pulse  may  be  full 
and  slow  in  the  horizontal  position,  but  becomes  feeble  and 
rapid  on  the  patient's  sitting  up.  Prostration  then  comes  on, 
with  tendency  to  syncope;  the  pulse  becomes  feeble,  small, 
and  irregular,  although  the  heart-beat  may  be  strong  and 
hard.  The  eyes  are  very  prominent;  the  pupils  fixed  and 
dilated;  the  sclerotic,  according  to  Tardieu,  acquires  a  pecu- 
liar blue  color,  which  he  regards  as  an  almost  characteristic 
sign.  Sometimes  there  is  abundant  salivation;  the  urine  is 
generally  suppressed.  Towards  the  close  there  are  usually 
delirium  and  stupor;  and  convulsions  are  very  apt  to  precede 


POISONING    BY    DIGITALIS. — DIGITALINE.  491 

death,  which  does  not,  as  a  rule,  occur  within  twenty-four 
hours,  and  is  sometimes  postponed  for  several  days.  Tardieu 
mentions  a  case  communicated  by  M.  Earth  to  the  Societe 
Anatomique,  1849,  of  an  anasarcous  woman,  who  swallowed 
twenty-five  grammes  of  tincture  of  digitalis  that  had  been 
prescribed  for  external  use.  Death  occurred  in  three-quarters 
of  an  hour;  the  only  symptoms  being  copious  vomiting,  a 
general  malaise,  and  a  very  severe  abdominal  pain  (loc.  cit., 
p.  636).  In  cases  of  recovery,  the  patient  is  not  fully  re- 
stored to  health  for  a  considerable  time, — sometimes  for 
weeks. 

The  differential  symptom  of  poisoning  by  digitalis  is  the 
irregular,  intermittent,  enfeebled  pulse,  which  varies  so  re- 
markably between  the  supine  and  the  erect  posture:  this, 
conjoined  with  the  sense  of  heat  and  pain  in  the  head,  the 
violent  vomiting  and  abdominal  pains,  the  profound  debility, 
and  the  troubled  vision,  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  indicate 
the  cause.  Another  very  characteristic  effect  of  digitalis  is 
its  cumulative  power — its  tendency  suddenl}'  to  break  out  with 
extreme  violence,  after  a  continued  apparent  inertness. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  are  turgescence  of  the  vessels 
of  the  brain  and  redness  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
stomach. 

The  minimum  fatal  dose  of  either  digitalis  or  its  active 
principle  is  not  known.  A  drachm  of  the  powder  has  been 
taken  without  producing  death ;  although  most  violent  vomit- 
ing resulted.  The  tincture  has  been  given  in  as  large  quan- 
tity as  half  a  fluidounce  without  any  serious  result,  although 
in  medical  practice  the  ordinary  dose  is  from  ten  to  thirty 
drops.  Of  digitaline,  it  is  probable  that  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  a  grain  might  prove  fatal.  Ortila  states  that  from  one 
to  two  grains  killed  dogs  in  a  few  hours,  unless  speedily 
thrown  off  by  vomiting. 

DIGITALINE. — As  this  active  principle  possesses  neither  acid 
nor  alkaline  properties,  it  is  classed  among  the  neutral  bodies. 
As  usually  met  with,  it  is  an  amorphous  powder,  of  a  pale- 
yellowish  color.  It  has,  however,  lately  been  obtained  in  the 
form  of  fine,  white,  needle-shaped  crystals,  by  M.  Nativelle 
(Pharm.  Jour.,  1872,  April  27,  p.  865).  This  crystalline  sub- 


492  MANUAL   OF  TOXICOLOGY. 

stance  is  now  generally  admitted  to  possess  about  equal 
strength  with  the  amorphous  variety ;  but  it  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  this  with  their  alleged  respective  percentage  in  the 
crude  drug.  Thus,  according  to  Taylor,  Guy,  and  Pereira, 
the  proportion  of  digitaline  (amorphous)  is  only  one  per  cent., 
while,  according  to  Blaquart  (as  already  noticed),  that  of  the 
crystallizable  variety  is  ten  to  twelve  per  cent. 

There  would  seem  to  be  a  true  physiological  antagonism 
between  digitaline  and  aconitia.  According  to  Boehm 
(Ptiiiger's  Archiv,  Feb.,  1872),  in  digitalis-poisoning  of  the 
frog,  even  when  the  heart  has  ceased  to  contract,  its  move- 
ments are  restored  by  aconitia,  muscaria,  and  delphinia;  and 
Dobie  reports  a  case  (Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1872)  of  re- 
covery after  the  ingestion  of  an  ounce  of  Fleming's  tincture 
of  aconite,  apparently  due  to  the  hypodermic  injection  of 
twenty  minims  of  tincture  of  digitalis,  and  the  exhibition 
by  the  mouth  of  three  doses,  within  an  hour,  of  a  drachm 
(each)  of  the  tincture,  brandy,  and  ammonia  (H.  0.  Wood's 
Therapeutics,  p.  125).  As  yet,  no  case  of  digitalis-poisoning 
in  man  has  been  recorded  where  any  of  the  above-named 
substances  have  been  employed  antidotally."  It  must  be 
remembered  that  whilst  there  might  exist  a  physiological 
antagonism,  so  far  as  their  operation  upon  the  heart  is  con- 
cerned, this  might  not  extend  to  their  influence  upon  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis. 

Chemical  reactions. — As  already  stated,  digitaline  occurs 
under  two  forms — the  amorphous  and  the  crystalline.  It  has 
an  intensely  bitter  taste.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  hot  and  in 
cold  water;  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  both  cold  and  hot;  al- 
most insoluble  in  pure  ether,  but  easily  dissolved  if  the  ether 
contains  a  little  alcohol.  Chloroform  is  one  of  its  best  sol- 
vents, and,  according  to  MM.  Homolle  and  Quevenne,  is  the 
one  best  adapted  for  its  separation.  Its  aqueous  or  alcoholic 
solution  gives  no  reaction  with  litmus  or  turmeric-paper,  indi- 
cating its  neutral  character.  The  alkalies,  even  when  diluted, 
gradually  destroy  its  bitter  taste.  Cold,  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  imparts  to  it,  at  first,  a  brownish-black  color,  which 
gradually  passes  into  a  red.  If  it  be  warmed,  the  color 
rapidly  becomes  brown.  If  to  the  cold,  brown  sulphuric  acid 


POISONING    BY   DIGITALINE. — ORGANIC    MIXTURES.         493 

solution  two  or  three  times  its  volume  of  distilled  water  be 
added,  it  assumes  a  green  color,  arid  deposits  a  green  powder, 
and  the  liquid  gradually  assumes  a  yellowish  tint  (Tardieu). 
Acetic  acid  dissolves  it  without  color;  strong  nitric  acid  acts 
upon  it  energetically,  with  the  escape  of  orange-colored 
fumes,  imparting  to  it  an  orange-yellow  color,  which  becomes 
a  pale  yellow  on  standing.  Hydrochloric  acid  imparts  to  it 
a  light-greenish  tint.  According  to  Tardieu,  if  the  digitaline 
is  perfectly  pure,  it  is  not  colored  at  all  by  this  acid. 

M.  Grandeau  states  that  if  sulphuric  acid  be  applied  to 
a  small  deposit  of  digitaline,  obtained  by  evaporation  of  a 
solution,  it  assumes  a  rose-color,  which,  on  exposure  to  the 
vapor  of  bromine,  becomes  a  violet;  but  M.  Tardieu  denies 
that  this  is  at  all  characteristic,  since  he  found  that  numerous 
substances,  including  many  of  the  animal  secretions,  when 
thus  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  bromine  vapor,  will  yield 
a  violet  color,  transient,  but  well  marked  (loc.  cit.,  p.  655).  Its 
solution  is  precipitated  by  tannic  acid,  but  not  by  bichloride 
of  mercury,  nor  by  chloriodide  of  potassium  and  mercury, 
both  of  which  act  upon  the  true  alkaloids.  It  is  not  affected 
by  iodic  acid. 

Detection  in  organic,  mixtures,  or  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach. 
— As  before  remarked,  poisoning  by  digitalis  is  compara- 
tively rare :  the  cases  heretofore  reported  have  been  chiefly 
the  result  of  accident,  and  the  majority  of  them  have  not 
proved  fatal.  At  least  one  instance  is  on  record  where  death 
resulted  from  digitaline  administered  hornicidally — the  cele- 
brated case  of  De  la  Pommerais,  which  occurred  in  France  in 
1863.  All  that  need  be  said  under  the  present  head  may  be 
included  under  the  search  for  this  poison  in  the  dead  body. 

In  a' suspected  case,  the  first  duty  of  the  toxicologist  will 
be  to  institute  a  very  careful  examination  of  the  interior  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines  for  any  fragments  or  powder 
of  the  leaves,  in  case  the  poison  has  been  swallowed  in  this 
form  ;  if  it  has  been  taken  in  the  form  of  tincture,  the  in- 
terior of  the  stomach  may  present  a  greenish  color,  and  may 
even  emit  a  peculiar  odor,  which  will  be  suggestive.  If 
digitaline  has  been  taken,  as  this  is  generally  found  in  the 
form  of  granules,  a  close  inspection  of  the  digestive  canal 

32 


494  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

may  reveal  some  little  remnants  of  the  latter  not  thoroughly 
dissolved.  The  vomited  matters  especially  demand  attention 
on  this  account  (vide  ante,  p.  99).  After  these  preliminary 
investigations,  the  organs,  cut  into  small  pieces,  are  put  into 
a  large  glass  flask  containing  pure  alcohol  at  95°.  This 
is  gently  heated  on  a  water-bath,  and  frequently  stirred,  to 
favor  the  solution.  After  digesting  twenty-four  hours,  the 
contents  of  the  flask  are  strained,  and  filtered  through  paper, 
the  solids  being  repeatedly  washed  with  strong  alcohol.  All 
the  washings  being  united  to  the  filtrate,  it  is  again  filtered, 
and  concentrated  by  evaporation  to  the  consistence  of  a  soft 
extract :  this  may  be  used  for  experiments  on  animals.  An- 
other solution  of  this  extract  in  strong  alcohol,  followed  by 
filtration  and  a  new  evaporation,  will  eliminate  an  additional 
quantity  of  foreign  matter,  and  the  resulting  purified  extract 
may  also  be  employed  for  physiological  experimentation.  It 
is  not  recommended  to  precipitate  the  solution  of  the  ulti- 
mate extract  by  tannic  acid,  as  it  has  been  shown  by  Tardieu 
and  Roussin  that  the  matter  thus  thrown  down  does  not 
represent  the  active  principle  in  such  cases. 

The  above  authorities  also  distinctly  assert  the  impossi- 
bility of  determining  the  presence  of  digitaline,  in  a  medico- 
legal  case,  either  by  the  post-mortem  signs  or  by  the  chemical 
analysis.  They  deem  it  essential  in  every  such  case  to  resort 
to  the  physiological  test;  and  this  step  seems  to  be  justified, 
first,  by  the  circumstance  of  the  inability  to  identify  the 
poison  with  any  degree  of  certainty  by  a  chemical  analysis, 
and  secondly,  by  the  fact  that  it  produces  a  perfectly-recog- 
nized impression  upon  a  particular  organ,  the  heart. 

As  the  result  of  numerous  experiments  with  this  agent 
upon  animals,  by  various  persons,  it  seems  well  established, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  death  takes  place  from  a  sudden  ces- 
sation of  the  heart's  action,  and  on  the  other,  that  the  ven- 
tricles undergo  a  most  decided  and  rapid  rigidity  at  the 
moment  of  death.  In  dogs,  this  occurs  almost  immediately 
after  the  last  ventricular  systole  (Tardieu) ;  and  in  frogs, 
according  to  Pelican,  the  ventricle  comes  to  a  stop  always  in 
the  state  of  strong  contraction.  If,  then,  there  be  introduced 
under  the  skin  of  the  thigh  or  abdomen  of  a  frog  a  portion 


POISONING   BY   DIGITALINE. — CASE   OF    DE    LA    POMMERAIS.    495 

of  the  ultimate  extract  obtained  from  the  vomit  or  from  the 
organs  of  a  person  poisoned  by  digitaline,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  heart-beats  lose  their  regularity,  and,  after  six  min- 
utes, fall  to  sixteen  pulsations;  after  twenty  minutes,  to  one- 
half  this  figure ;  and  after  twenty-five  minutes,  to  one-third ; 
in  half  an  hour  they  cease  completely.  Such,  moreover,  is 
the  irregularity  of  the  heart's  action,  that,  notwithstanding 
the  remaining  strength  of  its  pulsations,  this  organ  never 
completely  empties  itself  of  blood  ;  and  when  finally  it  ceases 
to  beat,  the  ventricle  is  contracted,  and  the  auricle  dilated. 

In  experimenting  with  the  suspected  material  upon  either 
dogs  or  frogs,  it  will  always  be  proper  to  institute  a  rigid 
comparison  between  the  results  thus  obtained  and  those  pro- 
cured from  similar  experiments  made  with  digitaline  itself 
upon  similar  animals. 

Tardieu  reports  a  number  of  cases  of  poisoning  by  digita- 
line taken  accidentally  and  suicidally, — the  majority  of  them 
not  fatal.  He  also  gives  the  medico-legal  report  of  the  cele- 
brated case  of  Couty  de  la  Pommerais,  a  homoeopathic  practi- 
tioner of  France,  who  was  tried  and  convicted  for  poisoning  a 
woman  named  Pauw,  with  digitaline,  in  the  year  1864.  The 
circumstances  connected  with  this  unique  case  are  of  such  a 
character  as  to  justify  our  giving  a  short  abstract  in  this  place. 
The  prisoner  had  renewed  his  intimacy  with  this  woman, 
who  was  forty  years  of  age,  after  a  long  absence,  and  had 
induced  her  to  insure  her  life  in  various  insurance-offices 
for  a  very  large  sum  of  money,  quite  disproportionate  to  her 
circumstances.  Very  soon  after  this,  being  previously  in 
good  health,  she  was  suddenly  seized  with  violent  vomiting, 
and  died  after  an  illness  of  twenty-four  hours.  Immediately 
after  her  death,  he  put  in  a  claim  for  the  insurance-money. 
Suspicion  was  aroused,  and  the  body  was  disinterred  and 
examined  thirteen  days  after  death.  The  examiners,  MM. 
Tardieu  and  Roussin,  found  all  the  organs  perfectly  healthy: 
they  revealed  no  natural  cause  of  death.  A  chemical  an- 
alysis of  the  alimentary  canal  revealed  no  poison.  The 
symptoms  during  life,  so  far  as  they  were  imperfectly  recol- 
lected, were  excessive  vomiting,  with  great  depression  of  the 
heart's  action,  and  exhaustion.  Failing  to  detect  any  poison 


496  MANUAL    OF    TOXICOLOGY. 

by  the  chemical  research,  they  resorted  to  the  physiological 
test, — the  administration  of  the  extract,  obtained  from  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  to  small  animals,  the  effects  of  which 
were  the  exciting  of  repeated  vomitings  and  a  very  notable 
diminution  of  the  number  of  heart-beats:  the  action  of  the 
heart  was  irregular  and  intermittent,  and  the  respiration  was 
deep  and  painful. 

Another  experiment  was  made  with  an  extract  obtained 
from  the  scrapings  of  the  floor  upon  which  the  deceased  woman 
had  vomited:  it  was  introduced  into  the  thigh  of  a  dog,  and 
the  animal,  after  suffering  from  vomiting  and  depression  of 
the  heart's  action,  died  in  twenty-two  hours,  without  coma 
or  insensibility,  i  Thirty-one  grains  of  the  same  extract  ad- 
ministered to  a  rabbit  proved  fatal  in  less  than  three  hours. 
This  extract  possessed  all  the  chemical  properties  of  digita- 
line :  thus,  it  had  a  bitter  taste,  and  a  disagreeable  odor;  its 
solution  precipitated  tannic  acid,  and  responded  to  the  acid 
and  other  tests  (vide  p.  492).  The  suspicious  circumstances 
connected  with  the  prisoner  were  of  a  very  damaging  charac- 
ter. It  was  shown  that  he  had  in  his  possession  a  large  num- 
ber of  deadly  poisons,  among  them  digitaline ;  that  he  had 
at  different  times  purchased  this  poison,  to  the  amount  of 
fifty-two  grains,  of  which  much  had  been  used;  and  that 
this  was  altogether  inconsistent  with  his  requirements  as  a 
homoeopathic  practitioner.  In  short,  he  had  the  motive,  the 
opportunity,  and  the  means  for  accomplishing  this  purpose. 
The  prisoner  was  condemned  and  executed.  (See  Tardieu 
and  Roussin's  treatise,  p.  694,  for  full  details  of  this  inter- 
esting case.) 

SECTION  III. 

POISONING   BY   COCCULUS   INDICUS. 

The  Cocculus  Indicus  (Levant  nut)  is  the  fruit  of  the  Ana- 
mirta  cocculus,  a  tree  growing  in  the  East  Indies.  The  kernel 
of  the  berry  is  the  only  poisonous  part :  it  has  an  intensely 
bitter  taste,  and  contains  a  highly  poisonous  principle,  called 
picrotoxine.  Cocculus  Indicus  is  employed  chiefly  as  a  fish- 
poison,  and  also,  in  Great  Britain,  for  the  malicious  destruc- 


POISONING   BY   COCCULUS   INDICUS. — SYMPTOMS.  497 

tion  of  game.  It  is  also  popularly  believed  to  be  extensively 
used  for  adulterating  malt  liquors,  by  imparting  to  them 
increased  intoxicating  properties  with  a  diminished  amount 
of  hops  and  malt. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  this  drug  are  somewhat  remark- 
able, and  clearly  indicate  its  action  on  the  cerebro-spinal 
centres.  Along  with  gastric  irritation,  there  is  a  singular 
sort  of  narcotism,  which  is  described  by  Dr.  Taylor  as  "  a 
strong  disposition  to  sleep,  and,  at  the  same  time,  wakeful- 
ness.  There  is  a  heavy,  lethargic  stupor,  with  a  conscious- 
ness of  passing  events,  but  a  complete  loss  of  voluntary 
power.  It  is  a  kind  of  nightmare  feeling;  altogether  dif- 
ferent from  healthy  sleep."  (Prin.  and  Prac.  of  Med.  Jurisp., 
1873,  p.  395.) 

Only  a  few  authenticated  cases  have  been  reported  of 
poisoning  with  this  substance,  on  man.  One  of  these  was 
a  boy  aged  twelve  years,  who  swallowed  a  composition  for 
poisoning  fish,  containing  Cocculus  Indicus.  It  caused  a 
burning  pain  in  the  gullet  and  stomach,  not  relieved  by  fre- 
quent vomiting.  There  was  much  febrile  excitement,  fol- 
lowed by  delirium  and  purging,  under  which  the  patient  sank 
on  the  nineteenth  day.  On  inspection,  the  pia  mater  was 
congested  with  dark-colored  liquid  blood;  there  was  serous 
effusion  into  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  ;  the  right  lung  was 
congested ;  and  the  abdomen  presented  all  the  marks  of  an 
advanced  peritonitis.  The  coats  of  the  stomach  were  dis- 
colored, and  were  softer  and  thinner  than  natural.  (Canstatt, 
Jahresbericht,  1844-5,  p.  298.) 

The  late  Dr.  Fish,  of  Philadelphia,  has  reported  several 
cases  of  accidental  poisoning  by  this  substance,  witnessed 
by  himself  while  resident  physician  in  the  Philadelphia 
Hospital,  Blockley.  A  strong  decoction  of  the  berries  is 
used  in  that  institution  for  the  destruction  of  vermin  upon 
the  paupers.  The  vessel  containing  it  was  unfortunately 
placed  near  some  tonic  infusions  in  use  by  several  patients. 
Through  the  ignorance  of  the  nurse,  a  wineglassful  of  this 
decoction  was  given  to  each  of  three  persons,  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls  to  three  others,  in  mistake  for  their  usual  medi- 
cine. Two  of  those  who  took  the  largest  quantity  were 


498  MANUAL   OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

seized  with  convulsions  about  twenty  minutes  after  taking 
the  poison,  and  died  in  about  half  an  hour.  The  contraction 
of  the  muscles  was  still  apparent  over  twelve  hours  after 
death.  The  remaining  four,  who  were  seized  within  a  few 
moments  of  each  other,  and  within  half  an  hour  after  swal- 
lowing the  poison,  exhibited  faintness,  mental  confusion, 
giddiness,  dimness  of  vision,  nausea,  excessive  thirst,  severe 
pain  in  the  abdomen,  and,  in  one  case,  insensibility.  The 
pulse  was  much  weakened,  and  the  respiration  was  slow  and 
labored.  These  all  recovered  under  the  use  of  emetics,  and 
afterwards  of  mucilaginous  drinks  and  stimulants;  but  they 
suffered  greatly  from  headache  during  the  rest  of  the  day. 
(Wharton  and  Stille,  Med.  Jurisp.,  1873,  ii.  p.  596.)  No  post- 
mortem examination  is  stated  to  have  been  made  in  the 
abo^e  fatal  cases. 

The  external  application  of  this  substance  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  violent  and  even  fatal  effects.  Dr.  W.  B.  Thomp- 
son, senior  house-surgeon  in  the  Emigrants'  Hospital,  New 
York,  relates  two  instances  of  this  character.  A  child  aged 
six  years,  whose  head,  after  the  removal  of  the  hair,  had 
been  washed  with  an  alcoholic  tincture  of  Cocculus  Indicus, 
was  seized,  in  less  than  half  an  hour  after  the  application, 
with  tetanic  spasms.  The  pupils,  during  the  convulsions, 
were  extremely  contracted,  but  in  the  interval  between  the 
spasms  they  were  widely  dilated.  The  child,  although  en- 
ergetically treated,  died  in  a  few  hours.  On  post-mortem 
examination,  no  changes  of  any  kind  were  observed.  A 
younger  sister  of  the  deceased,  who  had  been  subjected  to 
the  same  process,  was  also  attacked  in  a  similar  manner. 
Under  the  use  of  counter-irritation  by  mustard,  and  inges- 
tions  of  the  tincture  of  assafetida,  she  recovered,  the  con- 
vulsions gradually  subsiding.  The  next  day  a  scarlatinous 
eruption  appeared  upon  the  body  and  arms,  which  graduall)" 
faded  during  the  day.  (Phila.  Med.  Examiner,  April,  1852.) 

PICROTOXIXE  (Picrotoxia). — The  active  principle  of  Coc- 
culus Indicus  is  generally  considered  to  be  an  alkaloid, 
although  in  some  of  its  reactions  it  differs  from  that  class  of 
bodies.  It  exists  in  the  kernel  of  the  berry  in  about  the 
proportion  of  one  per  cent.  It  crystallizes  in  colorless,  slender, 


POISONING    BY   COCCULUS    INDICUS. — TESTS.  499 

\ 

six-sided  prisms,  having  a  silky  gloss.  It  is  sparingly  solu- 
ble in  cold  water;  more  soluble  in  boiling  water.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  in  amylic  alcohol. 
Heated  in  a  tube,  it  evolves  an  acid  vapor  like  digitaline. 
Cold  sulphuric  acid  does  not  affect  it;  but  when  warmed,  it 
imparts  to  it  an  orange-yellow  color,  which  becomes  pale 
yellow  by  dilution,  and  brown  if  heated. 

On  the  addition  of  bichromate  of  potassa,  the  green  oxide 
of  chromium  is  developed.  Strong  hydrochloric  and  nitric 
acids  dissolve  it  without  change  of  color.  Neither  tannic 
acid  nor  chloriodide  of  potassium  and  mercury  precipitates  it 
from  its  solutions.  When  boiled  with  a  solution  of  potassa 
and  the  sulphate  of  copper,  it  precipitates  the  red  oxide  of 
copper,  like  grape-sugar.  It  is  said  to  belong  to  the  gluco- 
sides,  like  salicine  (Taylor,  loc.  tit.,  p.  396). 

Unlike  the  alkaloids  generally,  it  does  not  appear  to  com- 
bine with  acids  to  form  salts,  but  unites  readily  with  bases: 
hence  a  weak  solution  of  potash  will  dissolve  it  without  diffi- 
culty. It  may  therefore  be  easily  separated  from  the  alkaloids 
by  strongly  acidulating  the  mixture  and  shaking  it  up  with 
ether,  which  readily  takes  up  the  picrotoxine,  and  leaves  the 
alkaloidal  salts.  From  organic  liquids,  such  as  beer  and 
porter,  picrotoxine  may  be  readily  obtained  by  first  acidu- 
lating with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  shaking  with  ether, 
which  holds  the  poison  in  solution  and  deposits  it  in  crys- 
tals. This  method  has  been  successfully  practiced  by  Mr. 
Langley  (Pharm.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1862,  p.  277).  He  was  enabled 
to  detect  so  small  a  quantity  as  one  seven-hundred-and-tif- 
tieth  of  a  grain  of  picrotoxine  in  a  pint  of  ale.  He  likewise 
separated  it,  by  the  same  process,  from  the  stomach  of  a  cat 
that  had  been  killed  by  this  poison. 

A  curious  case  of  attempted  criminal  poisoning  by  the 
unbroken  berry  of  the  Cocculus  Indicus  occurred  in  Eng- 
land (Reg.  v.  Clauderay)  in  1849.  Two  berries  had  been 
given  to  an  infant:  one  of  these  was  vomited,  and  the  other 
passed  through  the  bowels  unbroken;  no  bad  effects  fol- 
lowed. The  accused  was  tried  for  poisoning,  but  urged  in 
his  defense  that  the  unbroken  pod  did  not  come  within  the 
statute,  not  being  properly  "  a  poison  or  other  destructive 


500  MANUAL    OF   TOXICOLOGY. 

thing."  The  objection  was  overruled,  and  a  verdict  of  guilty 
was  rendered.  On  appeal,  the  judgment  was  sustained,  and 
the  prisoner  was  condemned.  Here,  the  intention  of  the 
accused  had  undoubtedly  great  weight  with  the  court. 

There  are  several  other  vegetable  poisons  of  minor  im- 
portance :  among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  bark  and 
seeds  of  the  Laburnum  (Cytisus  Laburnum),  a  very  common 
tree  or  shrub  of  Great  Britain.  It  contains  an  active  poison- 
ous principle,  cytisine.  Its  effects  are  those  of  a  narcotico- 
irritant.  Both  the  bark  and  the  seeds  have  produced  fatal 
effects. 

The  leaves  and  berries  of  the  Yew  (Taxus  baccata)  act  power- 
fully as  an  acrid,  irritant  narcotic,  even  in  small  quantities. 
Its  active  principle  has  not  yet  been  isolated.  Under  the 
same  head  may  be  mentioned  the  berries  of  the  Privet  (Ligus- 
trum  vulgare)',  those  of  the  Guelder  Rose  (Viburnum  opulus)', 
and  those  of  the  Solly  (Ilex  aquifolium). 


INDEX. 


A. 

Absorption,  action  of  poisons  through. 
22. 

circumstances  influencing,  23. 

effect  of,  in  removing  poisons  be- 
yond  the  reach  of  analysis,  71. 

extreme  rapidity  of,  26. 
Acetate  of  lead,  311. 

of  morphia,  373. 
Acetic  acid,  174. 
Aceto-arsenite  of  copper,  292. 
Acid,  acetic,  174. 

arsenic,  251. 

arsenious,  216. 

citric, .174. 

hydrochloric,  158. 

hydrocyanic,  474. 

igasuric,  396. 

meconic,  376. 

nitric,  149. 

oxalic,  162. 

phosphoric,  207. 

strychnic,  396. 

sulphuric,  137. 

tartaric,  173. 
Acids,  mineral,  nature  and  effects  of, 

136. 
Aconitia,  properties  of,  469. 

fallacies  of  tests  for,  470. 

physiological  test  for,  470. 

separation  from  organic  mixtures 

and  the  tissues,  470. 
Aconite  root,  poisoning  by,  465. 

fatal  dose,  466. 

fatal  period,  467. 

post-mortem  appearances,  466. 

symptoms  produced  by,  465. 

treatment,  467. 
Aconitum  napellus,  465. 
Alkalies,  distinguishing  properties  of, 
175. 

fatal  quantity,  176. 

period  when  fatal,  176. 


Alkalies,  post-mortem  signs  of,  177. 
symptoms  caused  by,  175. 
treatment  of  poisoning  by,  177. 
Alkaloids,  recovery  by  dialysis,  113. 
by  Stas'  method,  110. 
by    Uslar'    and     Erdmann's 

method,  383. 
Aloes,  poisoning  by,  333. 
Ammonia,  182. 

effects  of  vapor  of,  176. 

period  when  fatal,  176. 

properties  of,  182. 

salts  of,  182. 

separation  from  organic  mixtures, 

183. 

symptoms  produced  by,  176. 
Anaesthetics,  389. 
Analysis,  chemical,  67. 
accuracy  of,  75. 
causes  of  failure  in,  70. 
importance  of,  68. 
objects  of,  73. 
precautions   to   be    observed 

in,  74. 

when  impossible,  67. 
Aniline,  a  source  of  fallacy,  422. 
Antagonism  of  poisons,  91,  94. 
Antimonetted  hydrogen,  262. 
Antimony,  poisoning  by,  253. 

necessity  for  extracting  the  metal, 

268. 

poisonous  salts  of,  253. 
quantitative    determination     of, 

269.     (See  Tartar  Emetic.) 
recovery  from  the  tissues,  270. 
separation  from  organic  mixtures 

and  the  stomach,  265. 
Appearances,   post-mortem,    liability 
of,  to  be  confounded  with  the 
effects  of  diseases,  69. 
post-mortem,  value  of,  in  poison- 
ing, 66. 

Aqua  ammonia,  properties  of,  182. 
poisoning  by,  176. 

601 


502 


INDEX. 


Aqua  fortis,  149. 
Arsenic,  metallic,  215. 

compounds  of,  215. 
eaters  of,  35,  215. 
white,  216. 
Arsenious  acid,  216. 
antidotes  for,  226. 
antiseptic  properties  of,  224. 
detection  after  long  periods,  225. 
in  the  stomach,  243. 
in  the  tissues,  245. 
in  the  urine,  250. 
in  vomited  matters,  242. 
external  application  of,  219. 
failure  to  detect,  222. 
fallacies  in  Reinsch's  test,  239. 
in     sulphuretted     hydrogen 

test,  232. 
fatal  dose,  220. 
*  fatal  period,  221. 
liquid  tests,  230. 
Marsh's  test,  232. 
delicacy  of,  238. 
fallacies  in,  235,  236. 
modifications  of,  236. 

Bloxam's,  241. 
nitrate  of  silver  modification 

of,  237. 

post-mortem  signs,  223. 
quantitative  analysis  of,  248. 
reduction  process,  228. 
Reinsch's  test  for,  238. 

interferences  in,  241. 
solubilities  of,  216. 
sublimation  test  for,  227. 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  test,  231. 

interferences,  232. 
symptoms  produced  by,  216. 
taste  of,  216. 
time    of    first    manifestation    of 

symptoms,  219. 
treatment  for,  226. 
varieties  of,  216. 
Arsenite  of  potassa,  251. 
Asagraea  officinalis,  339. 
Asthenics,  474. 
Atropa  belladonna,  436. 
Atropia,  438. 

antagonism  of,  with  morphia,  95. 
chemical  properties  of,  441. 
external  application  of,  439. 
physiological  test,  443. 
poisoning  by,  438. 
post-mortem  signs,  441. 
recovery  from  the  blood,  443. 
separation  from  complex  organic 

mixtures,  -l-li'. 

subcutaneous  injection  of,  439. 
tests  for,  441. 
treatment  of  poisoning  by,  441. 


B. 


Belladonna,  poisoning  by,  436. 

poisoning  by,  treatment  for,  441. 

symptoms  produced  by,  436. 
Bichromate  of  potassa,  330. 
Binoxalate  of  potassa,  172. 

poisonous  symptoms,  172. 
Bismuth,  subnitrate  of,  327. 

arsenic  in,  328. 
Bittersweet,  449. 
Bloxam's  method  for  detecting  arsenic, 

241. 

Blue  vitriol,  293. 
Bromine,  poisoning  by,  213. 
Brucia,  poisoning  by,  434. 

physiological  effects  of,  434. 
tests  for,  435. 

solubility,  434. 

special  chemical  properties,  435. 

test  for  nitric  acid,  153. 
Burnett's  disinfecting  fluid,  323. 


C. 

Calabar  bean,  poisoning  by,  471. 

effect  on  system,  472.  * 

chemical  properties  of  physostig- 

mia,  473. 
Carbolic  acid,  poisoning  by,  342. 

chemical  analysis,  343. 

fatal  quantity,  343. 

post-mortem  appearances,  343. 

symptoms,  342. 

treatment,  344. 
Case  of  Buffenbarsrer,  41. 

of  Castaing,  68,  372. 

of  the  Count  Bocarme,  49,  87. 

of  De  la  Pommerais,  460. 

of  Donellan,  48,  68. 

of  Donnall,  77,  231. 

of  the  Duke  of  Praslin,  218. 

of  Hartley,  88. 

of  Hendrickson,  470. 

of  Mr.  Hodgson,  89. 

of  Humphrey,  88. 

of  Mrs.  E.  E.  Lloyd,  65,  328. 

of  North,  89. 

of  Palmer,  403,  433. 

of  M.  Pralet,  49. 

of  Dr.  Paul  Schoeppe,  93,  485. 

of  Sprague,  86. 

of  Madeline  Smith,  74. 

of  Mrs.  E.  G.  "Wharton,  60.  267. 
Castor-oil  beans,  poisoning  by,  334. 
Causes  modifying  the  effects  of  poi- 
sons, 33. 

Cerebral  neurotics,  301. 
Cerebro-spinal  neurotics,  436. 


INDEX. 


503 


Chemical  analysis,  failure  of,  70. 
importance  of,  67. 
objects  of,  73. 

decomposition  of  poisons,  72. 
reagents,  purity  of,  80. 
tests,  fallacies  in,  79. 
Chloride  of  zinc,  poisoning  by,  323. 
Chlorinated  soda,  poisoning  by,  188. 
Chromium,  poisoning  by,  330. 
Classification  of  poisons,  132. 
Cocculus  Indicus,  poisoning  by,  496. 
Codeia,  physiological  effects  of,  379. 
properties  of,  379. 
tests  for,  379. 

Colchicina,  properties  of,  335. 
Colchicum,  poisoning  by,  334. 

morbid  appearances,  335. 
Color  tests,  fallacy  of,  77. 
Compensation  of  medical  experts,  123. 
Compound  poisoning,  91. 
Conia,   distinguished   from   nicotina, 

461. 

effects  of,  454. 
general  properties  of,  454. 
separation   from   the    blood   and 

tissues,  455. 
solubility,  454. 
Conium  maculatum,  452. 
Copper,  metallic,  289. 

poisoning  by,  289. 
contamination  of  food  by,  289. 
effects  of  salts  of,  on  the  system, 

292. 

fatal  dose  of  sulphate  of,  294. 
fatal  period,  294. 
post-mortem  signs,  295. 
quantitative  determination,  304. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

299. 
from  the  stomach  and  tissues, 

301. 

from  the  urine,  303. 
subacetate  of,  29G. 
sulphate  of,  295. 
symptoms,  293. 
tests,  296. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  294. 
Corrosive    sublimate,   poisoning    bAT, 

273. 

symptoms,  274. 
tests  for.  278. 
treatment,  277. 
chemical  properties  of,  274. 
chronic  poisoning  by,  277. 
external  application,  276. 
failure  to  detect,  284. 
fatal  dose,  276. 
fatal  period,  276. 
post-mortem  appearances,  277. 
quantitative  analysis,  288. 


Corrosive   sublimate,   recovery  from 

organic  mixtures,  282. 
from  the  tissues,  283. 
from  the  urine,  283 
reduction  test,  280. 
salivation  from,  278,  285. 
Croton  oil,  poisoning  by,  332. 
Curara,  422. 
Curarine,  422. 

D. 

Danger  and  Flandin's  method  for  ar- 
senic, and  other  metals,  100,  249. 
Datura  stramonium,  444. 
Daturia,  chemical  properties  of,  446. 
separation  from  organic  mixtures, 

447. 

tests  for,  446. 

Deliriants,  or  delirifacients,  436. 
Depressants,  452. 
Dialysis,  method  of,  113. 
Digitaline,  491. 

chemical  reactions  of,  492. 
detection  in  organic  mixtures,  493. 
case  of  De  la  Pommerais,  495. 
Digitalis,  poisoning  by,  490. 

post-mortem  appearances, 

491. 

symptoms  of,  490. 
Disease,  effects   of,   confounded   with 

those  of  poisons,  58. 
modifying  influence  of,  on  the  ac- 
tion of  poisons,  36. 
Diseases  simulating  poisoning,  52. 
Duties  and  privileges  of  medical  ex- 
perts, 119. 

E. 

Elaterium,  poisoning  by,  333. 
Elimination  of  poisons,  27. 
Evidence  from  chemical  analysis,  67. 

from  circumstances,  87. 

from  experiments  on  animals,  80. 

from  morbid  lesions,  56. 

from  symptoms,  45. 
Evidences  of  poisoning,  45. 
Experts,  medical,  rights  of,  123. 

F. 

Failure  to  detect  poisons,  70. 
Fresenius  and  Babo's  method  for  de- 
tection of  metallic  poisons,  99,  246. 

H. 

Habit,    modifying    influence   of,    on 

poison,  35. 

Hellebore,  American,  337. 
black,  337. 


504 


INDEX. 


Hellebore,  white,  poisoning  by,  338. 
symptoms  of,  337. 
treatment,  338. 
Hemlock,  poisoning  by,  452. 

post-mortem       appearances, 

453. 

symptoms,  453. 
treatment,  454. 
properties  of,  452. 
water,  456. 

Hydrochloric  acid,  158. 
fatal  dose,  158. 
fatal  period,  158. 
post-mortem  signs,  158. 
properties  of,  158. 
quantitative  analysis,  162. 
separation  from  organic  mixtures, 

160. 

symptoms,  158. 
tests  for,  160. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  158. 
Hydrocyanic  acid,  474. 

external  application  of,  477. 
fatal  dose,  477. 
fatal  period,  476. 
post-mortem  appearances,  478. 
properties  of,  474. 
quantitative  determination,  487. 
separation  from  organic  mixtures, 

484. 
from  the  tissues  and  blood, 

484. 

symptoms  produced  by,  475. 
tests  for,  479. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  478. 
Hyoscyamia,  448. 
Hyoscyamus,  poisoning  by,  447. 
chemical  analysis,  448. 
fatal  dose  of,  447. 

I. 

Idiosyncrasy,  influence  of,  36. 

Igasuric  acid,  396. 

Imbibition,  post-mortem,  of  poisons, 

38. 

Indian  poke,  337. 
Intestines,  perforation  of,  61. 
Iodine,  poisoning  by,  209 
Irritant  poisons,  effects  of,  135. 

poisoning,  morbid  appearances  in, 
136. 

J. 

Jamestown  weed,  poisoning  by  (see 
Stramonium),  442. 

L. 

Laudanum,  362. 
Lead  colic,  313. 

poisoning  by,  305. 


Lead,  accidental  poisoning  by,  306. 
acetate  of,  effects  of,  311. 

chronic  poisoning  by,  313. 
fatal  dose,  312. 
fatal  period,  312. 
post-mortem  signs,  313. 
properties  of,  311. 
quantitative  analysis,  321. 
symptoms  of  poisoning  by, 
"  311. 
treatment  of   poisoning  by, 

312. 

contamination  of  water  by,  309. 
detection  in  the  urine,  321. 
external  application  of,  308 
separation  from  organic  mixtures, 

318. 

tests,  316. 
Lobelia,  poisoning  by,  463. 

M. 

Marsh 's  test  for  antimony,  262. 

test  for  arsenic,  232. 
Meconic  acid,  376. 

chemical  properties  of,  377. 

fallacies  in  detecting,  377. 

iron  test  for,  377. 

physiological  effects  of,  377. 

separation  from  organic  mixtures, 
381. 

tests  for,  377. 
Meconine,  380. 
Medico-legal  questions,  114. 
Mercury,  metallic,  272. 

compounds  of,  273,  288. 

detection  in  the  organs,  283. 
in  the  urine,  283. 

physiological  effects  of,  273. 

protochloride  (calomel),  288. 
Metal,  necessity  of  obtaining  the,  76. 
Method  of  chemical  procedure  in  the 

search  for  poisons,  98. 
Microscope,  application  of,  66. 
Mineral  acids,  137. 
Monkshood,  465. 
Morphia,  371. 

effects  of,  371. 

external  application  of,  374. 

failure  to  detect,  380. 

fatal  dose,  373. 

fatal  period,  366. 

general  chemical  properties,  375. 

post-mortem  appearances,  374. 

recovery  from  stomach,  380. 
from  the  blood,  383. 
from  the  tissues,  383. 
from  the  urine,  384. 

separation  from  organic  mixtures, 
380. 


INDEX. 


505 


Morphia,  symptoms  of  poisoning  by, 
371. 

tests  for,  374. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  370. 
Muriatic  acid,  158. 

N. 
Narceia,   or    narceine,   physiological 

action  of,  379. 
properties  of,  379. 
tests  for,  379. 

Narcotico-irritant  poisoning,  132. 
Narcotics,  361. 
Narcotina,   physiological    action    of, 

378. 

properties  of,  378. 
test  for  nitric  acid,  153,  156. 
tests  for,  378. 

Neurotics,  properties  of,  133. 
Nicotia,  or  nicotina,  459. 
fatal  dose  of,  459. 
fatal  period,  459. 
post-mortem  signs,  458. 
recoTery  from  tissues  and  blood, 

462. 
symptoms  produced  by,  457. 

case  of  the  Count  Bocarme, 

460. 
Nicotiana    tabacum,    properties    of, 

457. 

Nightshade,  deadly  (belladonna),  436. 
garden,  449. 
woody,  449. 
Nitrate  of  potassa,  184. 
Nitric  acid,  poisoning  by,  149. 
antidotes  for,  151. 
fatal  dose,  150. 
fatal  period,  150. 
fumes  of,  fatal,  150. 
general  chemical  properties,  152. 
post-mortem  appearances  in  poi- 
soning by,  151. 
recovery  from  organic  substances, 

154. 

stains  produced  by,  150, 157. 
symptoms  produced  by,  149. 
test  for,  152. 

Nux  vomica,  properties,  396. 
fatal  dose,  396. 

symptoms  produced  by  (see  Strych- 
nia). 
treatment   of  poisoning   by   (see 

Strychnia) . 
uses,  397. 

O. 

(Esophagus,  tying  of,  83. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  137. 

Opianyl,  physiological  eifects  of,  380. 

properties  of,  380. 

tests,  380. 


Opium,  nature  and  properties  of,  362. 

external  application  of,  868. 

failure  to  detect,  374. 

fatal  dose,  366. 

fatal  period,  365. 

inequality  of  strength  of,  362. 

post-mortem  appearances,  369. 

recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 
380. 

separation  from  stomach  and  tis- 
sues, 380. 

symptoms  produced  by,  363. 

tests  for,  374. 

time  of  symptoms,  365. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  370. 
Orpiment,  253. 
Oxalic  acid,  properties,  162. 

fatal  dose,  164. 

fatal  period,  164. 

post-mortem  lesions,  165. 

recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

167. 

from  the  tissues  and   urine, 
171. 

stains  produced  by,  171. 

symptoms  produced  by,  163. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  165. 

P. 

Papaver  somniferum,  362. 
Phosphoric  acid,  207. 
tests  for,  267. 
Phosphorus,  194. 

fatal  dose  of,  195. 

fatal  period,  196. 

fatty  degeneration  occasioned  by, 
198. 

hydrogen  test,  205. 

Lipowitz's  test,  204. 

Mitscherlich's  test,  203. 

post-mortem  signs,  197. 

properties  of,  201. 

quantitative  determination,  206. 

recovery  in  the  free  state,  202. 
from  organic  mixtures,  202. 

symptoms,  acute,  194. 
chronic,  195. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  196. 

varieties  of,  208. 
Physostigma  venenosum,  471. 
Physostigmia,  473. 
Picrotoxia,  498. 
Poison,  definition  of  a,  14. 
Poisoned  flesh,  360. 
Poisonous  cheese,  355. 

fish  and  mussels,  356. 

meats,  358. 

sausages,  353. 
Poisons,  classification  of,  132. 

failure  to  detect,  70. 


506 


INDEX. 


Polarized  light  a  test  for  soda,  181. 
Post-mortem  appearances  as  evidences 

of  poisoning,  56. 
examinations,    proper    mode    of 

conducting,  62. 
imbibition  of  poisons,  38. 
Potassa,  poisoning  by,  175. 
fatal  quantity,  176. 
fatal  period,  176. 
.    post-mortem  appearances,  177. 
quantitative  determination,  181. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

180. 

salts  of,  poisoning  by,  184. 
special  chemical  properties,  178. 
symptoms,  175. 
tests  for,  179. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  177. 
Prussic  acid  (see  Hydrocyanic  Acid). 

R. 

Ratsbane  215. 

Reagents,  chemical,  impurities  in,  80. 

Realgar,  253. 

Reinsch's  test,  238,  270. 


S. 

Sabadilla,  339. 

Soda,  poisoning  by,  175. 

properties  of,  181. 

recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 
182. 

tests  for,  181. 
Solania,  properties  of,  450. 

symptoms  produced  by,  449. 
Solanum  dulcamara,  449. 

symptoms  produced  by,  449. 

nigrum,  449. 

tuberosum,  450. 

Spinal  neurotics,  or  tetanics,  396. 
Spirit  of  salt,  158. 

Stas'  process  for  recovering  the  alka- 
loids, 110. 

St.  Ignatius's  bean,  396. 
Stomach,  redness  of,  59. 

rupture  of,  56. 

softening  of,  61. 

ulceration  and  perforation  of,  60, 

61. 
Stramonium,  poisoning  by,  442. 

effects  on  the  system,  444. 

post-mortem  signs,  446. 

properties  of,  442. 

seeds,  poisoning  by,  442. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  446. 
Strychnia,  poisoning  by,  396. 

bitterness  of  taste,  413. 


Strychnia,  color  test  for,  414. 
delicacy  of,  416. 
effect  of  morphia  on,  418. 
fallacies  of,  422. 
interferences  with,  417. 
external  application  of,  401. 
failure  to  detect,  433. 
fatal  dose,  401. 
fatal  period,  403. 
frog  test  for,  426. 
galvanic  test,  423. 

period  of  invasion  of  symp- 
toms, 399. 

physiological  test,  426. 
poisoning,  diagnosis  of,  408. 

post-mortem  appearances, 

407. 

properties  of,  397. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

428. 

from  the  stomach,  428. 
from  the  tissues  and  blood, 

431. 

from  the  urine,  433. 
tests  for,  423. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  404. 
Strychnos  nux  vomica,  396. 

Ignatia,  396. 

Sugar  of  lead,  poisoning  by,  311. 
Sulphate  of  copper,  292. 
of  indigo,  154. 
of  lead',  316. 
of  zinc,  322. 

Sulphuric  acid,  absorption  and  elim- 
ination of,  142. 
fatal  dose,  140. 
fatal  period,  139. 
general  chemical  properties,  142. 
poisoning  by,  137. 

post-mortem  appearances, 

140. 

properties  of,  137. 
quantitative  determination,  148. 
recoverv  from  organic  mixtures, 

144. 

from  the  stomach,  145. 
stains  produced  by,  147. 
symptoms  produced  by,  137. 
tests  for.  142. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  140. 
Symptoms,  as  evidences  of  poisoning, 
45. 

T. 

Tartaric  acid,  poisoning  by,  173. 
Tartar  emetic,  poisoning  by,  254. 

chemical  properties  of,  254. 

external  application,  260. 

fatal  dose,  256. 

fatal  period,  257. 


INDEX. 


507 


Tartar  emetic,  importance  of  obtain- 
ing the  metal,  208. 
post-mortem  signs,  258. 
quantitative  analysis,  269. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

265. 

from  the  stomach,  266. 
from  the  tissues  and  blood, 

270. 

from  the  urine,  272. 
symptoms  produced  by,  254. 
tests  for,  260. 

treatment  of  poisoning  by,  260. 
Tetanics,  396. 

Tetanus,  distinguished   from   strych- 
nia-poisoning, 55. 
Thorn-apple,  444. 
Tin,  poisoning  by,  329. 
Tincture  of  opium,  362. 
Tobacco,  poisoning  by,  457. 

symptoms  of,  457. 
external  application  of,  457. 
smoking  of.  458. 
Trichiniasis,  353. 

symptoms  of,  354. 

U. 

Uslarand  Erdmann's  method  of  recov- 
ering the  alkaloids,  383. 


V. 

Vegetable  irritants,  331. 
Veratria,  poisoning  by,  339. 
chemical  properties  of,  339. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

341. 

symptoms,  340. 
test  for  sulphuric  acid,  144. 
tests,  340. 
Veratrum  album,  poisoning  by,  338. 

symptoms,  338. 
viride,  poisoning  by,  337. 

symptoms,  337. 
Verdigris*  296. 

W. 

White  hellebore,  338. 

vitriol,  322. 
Wolfsbane,  465. 
Woorara,  properties  of,  422. 

Z. 

Zinc,  poisoning  by,  322. 

post-mortem  appearances,  323. 
recovery  from  organic  mixtures, 

325. 

sulphate,  322. 

symptoms  of  poisoning  by,  322. 
tests,  325. 
treatment  of  poisoning  by,  324. 


THE   END. 


